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Alexander Hess 2024-04-08 22:13:31 +02:00
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26
00_intro/00_content.ipynb
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -135,7 +135,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"To \"read\" this book in the most meaningful way, a working installation of **Python 3.8** with [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) is needed.\n", "To \"read\" this book in the most meaningful way, a working installation of **Python 3.8** with [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) is needed.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For a tutorial on how to install Python on your computer, follow the instructions in the [README.md](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/README.md#installation) file in the project's [GitHub repository <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python). If you cannot install Python on your own machine, you may open the book interactively in the cloud with [Binder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab)." "For a tutorial on how to install Python on your computer, follow the instructions in the [README.md](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/README.md#installation) file in the project's [GitHub repository <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python). If you cannot install Python on your own machine, you may open the book interactively in the cloud with [Binder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -161,7 +161,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"\"Jupyter\" is an [acronym <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym) derived from the names of the three major programming languages **[Julia](https://julialang.org/)**, **[Python <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org)**, and **[R](https://www.r-project.org/)**, all of which play significant roles in the world of data science. The Jupyter Project's idea is to serve as an integrating platform such that different programming languages and software packages can be used together within the same project.\n", "\"Jupyter\" is an [acronym <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Acronym) derived from the names of the three major programming languages **[Julia](https://julialang.org/)**, **[Python <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org)**, and **[R](https://www.r-project.org/)**, all of which play significant roles in the world of data science. The Jupyter Project's idea is to serve as an integrating platform such that different programming languages and software packages can be used together within the same project.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Jupyter notebooks have become a de-facto standard for communicating and exchanging results in the data science community - both in academia and business - and provide an alternative to command-line interface (CLI or \"terminal\") based ways of running Python code. As an example for the latter case, we could start the default [Python interpreter <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html) that comes with every installation by typing the `python` command into a CLI (or `poetry run python` if the project is managed with the [poetry](https://python-poetry.org/docs/) CLI tool as explained in the [README.md](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/README.md#alternative-installation-for-instructors) file). Then, as the screenshot below shows, we could execute Python code like `1 + 2` or `print(\"Hello World\")` line by line simply by typing it following the `>>>` **prompt** and pressing the **Enter** key. For an introductory course, however, this would be rather tedious and probably scare off many beginners." "Jupyter notebooks have become a de-facto standard for communicating and exchanging results in the data science community - both in academia and business - and provide an alternative to command-line interface (CLI or \"terminal\") based ways of running Python code. As an example for the latter case, we could start the default [Python interpreter <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/interpreter.html) that comes with every installation by typing the `python` command into a CLI (or `poetry run python` if the project is managed with the [poetry](https://python-poetry.org/docs/) CLI tool as explained in the [README.md](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/README.md#alternative-installation-for-instructors) file). Then, as the screenshot below shows, we could execute Python code like `1 + 2` or `print(\"Hello World\")` line by line simply by typing it following the `>>>` **prompt** and pressing the **Enter** key. For an introductory course, however, this would be rather tedious and probably scare off many beginners."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -750,11 +750,11 @@
"**Part A: Expressing Logic**\n", "**Part A: Expressing Logic**\n",
"\n", "\n",
"- What is a programming language? What kind of words exist?\n", "- What is a programming language? What kind of words exist?\n",
" - *Chapter 1*: [Elements of a Program <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 1*: [Elements of a Program <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 2*: [Functions & Modularization <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 2*: [Functions & Modularization <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)\n",
"- What is the flow of execution? How can we form sentences from words?\n", "- What is the flow of execution? How can we form sentences from words?\n",
" - *Chapter 3*: [Conditionals & Exceptions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 3*: [Conditionals & Exceptions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 4*: [Recursion & Looping <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)" " - *Chapter 4*: [Recursion & Looping <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)"
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -768,14 +768,14 @@
"**Part B: Managing Data and Memory**\n", "**Part B: Managing Data and Memory**\n",
"\n", "\n",
"- How is data stored in memory?\n", "- How is data stored in memory?\n",
" - *Chapter 5*: [Numbers & Bits <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 5*: [Numbers & Bits <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 6*: [Text & Bytes <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 6*: [Text & Bytes <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 7*: [Sequential Data <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 7*: [Sequential Data <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 8*: [Map, Filter, & Reduce <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 8*: [Map, Filter, & Reduce <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 9*: [Mappings & Sets <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)\n", " - *Chapter 9*: [Mappings & Sets <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)\n",
" - *Chapter 10*: Arrays & Dataframes\n", " - *Chapter 10*: Arrays & Dataframes\n",
"- How can we create custom data types?\n", "- How can we create custom data types?\n",
" - *Chapter 11*: [Classes & Instances <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)" " - *Chapter 11*: [Classes & Instances <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)"
] ]
}, },
{ {

4
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@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/02_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/02_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)." "The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

2
00_intro/02_review.ipynb
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/00_content.ipynb).\n", "The questions below assume that you have read [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

10
01_elements/00_content.ipynb
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1165,7 +1165,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"These addresses are *not* meaningful for anything other than checking if two variables reference the *same* object.\n", "These addresses are *not* meaningful for anything other than checking if two variables reference the *same* object.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Obviously, `a` and `b` have the same *value* as revealed by the **equality operator** `==`: We say `a` and `b` \"evaluate equal.\" The resulting `True` - and the `False` further below - is yet another data type, a so-called **boolean**. We look into them in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Boolean-Expressions)." "Obviously, `a` and `b` have the same *value* as revealed by the **equality operator** `==`: We say `a` and `b` \"evaluate equal.\" The resulting `True` - and the `False` further below - is yet another data type, a so-called **boolean**. We look into them in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Boolean-Expressions)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1342,7 +1342,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Different types imply different behaviors for the objects. The `b` object, for example, may be \"asked\" if it is a whole number with the [.is_integer() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer) \"functionality\" that comes with *every* `float` object.\n", "Different types imply different behaviors for the objects. The `b` object, for example, may be \"asked\" if it is a whole number with the [.is_integer() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer) \"functionality\" that comes with *every* `float` object.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Formally, we call such type-specific functionalities **methods** (i.e., as opposed to functions) and we look at them in detail in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb). For now, it suffices to know that we access them with the **dot operator** `.` on the object. Of course, `b` is a whole number, which the boolean object `True` tells us." "Formally, we call such type-specific functionalities **methods** (i.e., as opposed to functions) and we look at them in detail in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb). For now, it suffices to know that we access them with the **dot operator** `.` on the object. Of course, `b` is a whole number, which the boolean object `True` tells us."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1934,7 +1934,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"For example, while the above code to calculate the average of the even numbers in `[7, 11, 8, 5, 3, 12, 2, 6, 9, 10, 1, 4]` is correct, a Pythonista would rewrite it in a more \"Pythonic\" way and use the built-in [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum) and [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) functions (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Built-in-Functions)) as well as a so-called **list comprehension** (cf., [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#List-Comprehensions)). Pythonic code runs faster in many cases and is less error-prone." "For example, while the above code to calculate the average of the even numbers in `[7, 11, 8, 5, 3, 12, 2, 6, 9, 10, 1, 4]` is correct, a Pythonista would rewrite it in a more \"Pythonic\" way and use the built-in [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum) and [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) functions (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Built-in-Functions)) as well as a so-called **list comprehension** (cf., [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#List-Comprehensions)). Pythonic code runs faster in many cases and is less error-prone."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2136,7 +2136,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"At the same time, for a beginner's course, it is often easier to code linearly.\n", "At the same time, for a beginner's course, it is often easier to code linearly.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In real data science projects, one would probably employ a mixed approach and put reusable code into so-called Python modules (i.e., *.py* files; cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Local-Modules-and-Packages)) and then use Jupyter notebooks to build up a linear report or storyline for an analysis." "In real data science projects, one would probably employ a mixed approach and put reusable code into so-called Python modules (i.e., *.py* files; cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Local-Modules-and-Packages)) and then use Jupyter notebooks to build up a linear report or storyline for an analysis."
] ]
} }
], ],

4
01_elements/01_exercises_print.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 1.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 1.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

6
01_elements/02_exercises_for-loops.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/02_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/02_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 1.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 1.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -36,7 +36,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"`for`-loops are extremely versatile in Python. That is different from many other programming languages.\n", "`for`-loops are extremely versatile in Python. That is different from many other programming languages.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As shown in the first example in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List), we can create a `list` like `numbers` and loop over the numbers in it on a one-by-one basis." "As shown in the first example in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List), we can create a `list` like `numbers` and loop over the numbers in it on a one-by-one basis."
] ]
}, },
{ {

12
01_elements/03_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/03_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/03_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -367,7 +367,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Some variables magically exist when a Python process is started or are added by Jupyter. We may safely ignore the former until [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) and the latter for good." "Some variables magically exist when a Python process is started or are added by Jupyter. We may safely ignore the former until [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) and the latter for good."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -687,7 +687,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Variables with leading and trailing double underscores, referred to as **dunder** in Python jargon, are used for built-in functionalities and to implement object-oriented features as we see in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb). We must *not* use this style for variables!" "Variables with leading and trailing double underscores, referred to as **dunder** in Python jargon, are used for built-in functionalities and to implement object-oriented features as we see in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb). We must *not* use this style for variables!"
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -968,7 +968,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Let's change the first element of `x`.\n", "Let's change the first element of `x`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#The-list-Type) discusses lists in more depth. For now, let's view a `list` object as some sort of **container** that holds an arbitrary number of references to other objects and treat the brackets `[]` attached to it as yet another operator, namely the **indexing operator**. So, `x[0]` instructs Python to first follow the reference from the global list of all names to the `x` object. Then, it follows the first reference it finds there to the `1` object we put in the list. The indexing operator must be an operator as we merely *read* the first element and do not change anything in memory permanently.\n", "[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#The-list-Type) discusses lists in more depth. For now, let's view a `list` object as some sort of **container** that holds an arbitrary number of references to other objects and treat the brackets `[]` attached to it as yet another operator, namely the **indexing operator**. So, `x[0]` instructs Python to first follow the reference from the global list of all names to the `x` object. Then, it follows the first reference it finds there to the `1` object we put in the list. The indexing operator must be an operator as we merely *read* the first element and do not change anything in memory permanently.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Python **begins counting at 0**. This is not the case for many other languages, for example, [MATLAB <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB), [R <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_%28programming_language%29), or [Stata <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stata). To understand why this makes sense, see this short [note](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD08xx/EWD831.html) by one of the all-time greats in computer science, the late [Edsger Dijkstra <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra)." "Python **begins counting at 0**. This is not the case for many other languages, for example, [MATLAB <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MATLAB), [R <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R_%28programming_language%29), or [Stata <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stata). To understand why this makes sense, see this short [note](https://www.cs.utexas.edu/users/EWD/transcriptions/EWD08xx/EWD831.html) by one of the all-time greats in computer science, the late [Edsger Dijkstra <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edsger_W._Dijkstra)."
] ]
@ -1144,7 +1144,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"In simple words, anything that may be used on the *right-hand* side of an assignment statement without creating a `SyntaxError` is an expression.\n", "In simple words, anything that may be used on the *right-hand* side of an assignment statement without creating a `SyntaxError` is an expression.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"What we have said about *individual* operators before, namely that they have *no* permanent side effects in memory, actually belongs here, to begin with: The absence of any *permanent* side effects is the characteristic property of expressions, and all the code cells in the \"*(Arithmetic) Operators*\" section in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators) of this chapter are examples of expressions.\n", "What we have said about *individual* operators before, namely that they have *no* permanent side effects in memory, actually belongs here, to begin with: The absence of any *permanent* side effects is the characteristic property of expressions, and all the code cells in the \"*(Arithmetic) Operators*\" section in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators) of this chapter are examples of expressions.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The simplest possible expressions contain only one variable or literal. The output below a code cell is Jupyter's way of returning the reference to the object to us!\n", "The simplest possible expressions contain only one variable or literal. The output below a code cell is Jupyter's way of returning the reference to the object to us!\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1414,7 +1414,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"... calling the built-in [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) function does *neither* change the memory *nor* evaluate to an object (disregarding the `None` object explained in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions)). We could view changing the computer's screen as a side effect but this is outside of Python's memory!\n", "... calling the built-in [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) function does *neither* change the memory *nor* evaluate to an object (disregarding the `None` object explained in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions)). We could view changing the computer's screen as a side effect but this is outside of Python's memory!\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Also, the cell below has *no* output! It only looks like it does as Jupyter redirects whatever [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) writes to the \"screen\" to below a cell. We see a difference to the expressions above in that there are no brackets `[...]` next to the output showing the execution count number." "Also, the cell below has *no* output! It only looks like it does as Jupyter redirects whatever [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) writes to the \"screen\" to below a cell. We see a difference to the expressions above in that there are no brackets `[...]` next to the output showing the execution count number."
] ]

4
01_elements/04_exercises_calculator.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/04_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/04_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) Chapter 1.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) Chapter 1.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

6
01_elements/05_summary.ipynb
View file

@ -45,7 +45,7 @@
" - distinct and well-contained areas/parts of the memory that hold the actual data\n", " - distinct and well-contained areas/parts of the memory that hold the actual data\n",
" - the concept by which Python manages the memory for us\n", " - the concept by which Python manages the memory for us\n",
" - can be classified into objects of the same **type** (i.e., same abstract \"structure\" but different concrete data)\n", " - can be classified into objects of the same **type** (i.e., same abstract \"structure\" but different concrete data)\n",
" - built-in objects (incl. **literals**) vs. user-defined objects (cf., [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb))\n", " - built-in objects (incl. **literals**) vs. user-defined objects (cf., [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb))\n",
" - e.g., `1`, `1.0`, and `\"one\"` are three different objects of distinct types that are also literals (i.e., by the way we type them into the command line Python knows what the value and type are)\n", " - e.g., `1`, `1.0`, and `\"one\"` are three different objects of distinct types that are also literals (i.e., by the way we type them into the command line Python knows what the value and type are)\n",
"\n", "\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -80,14 +80,14 @@
" - ignored by Python\n", " - ignored by Python\n",
"\n", "\n",
"\n", "\n",
"- functions (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb))\n", "- functions (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb))\n",
" - named sequences of instructions\n", " - named sequences of instructions\n",
" - the smaller parts in a larger program\n", " - the smaller parts in a larger program\n",
" - make a program more modular and thus easier to understand\n", " - make a program more modular and thus easier to understand\n",
" - include [built-in functions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) like [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print), [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum), or [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len)\n", " - include [built-in functions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) like [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print), [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum), or [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len)\n",
"\n", "\n",
"\n", "\n",
"- flow control (cf., [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb) and [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb))\n", "- flow control (cf., [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb) and [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb))\n",
" - expression of **business logic** or an **algorithm**\n", " - expression of **business logic** or an **algorithm**\n",
" - conditional execution of parts of a program (e.g., `if` statements)\n", " - conditional execution of parts of a program (e.g., `if` statements)\n",
" - repetitive execution of parts of a program (e.g., `for`-loops)" " - repetitive execution of parts of a program (e.g., `for`-loops)"

2
01_elements/06_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) and the [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 1.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) and the [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 1.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

2
01_elements/07_resources.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

20
02_functions/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List), we simply typed the code to calculate the average of the even numbers in a list of whole numbers into several code cells. Then, we executed them one after another. We had no way of *reusing* the code except for either executing cells multiple times. And, whenever we find ourselves doing repetitive manual work, we can be sure that there must be a way of automating what we are doing.\n", "In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List), we simply typed the code to calculate the average of the even numbers in a list of whole numbers into several code cells. Then, we executed them one after another. We had no way of *reusing* the code except for either executing cells multiple times. And, whenever we find ourselves doing repetitive manual work, we can be sure that there must be a way of automating what we are doing.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"This chapter shows how Python offers language constructs that let us **define** functions ourselves that we may then **call** just like the built-in ones. Also, we look at how we can extend our Python installation with functionalities written by other people." "This chapter shows how Python offers language constructs that let us **define** functions ourselves that we may then **call** just like the built-in ones. Also, we look at how we can extend our Python installation with functionalities written by other people."
] ]
@ -307,7 +307,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"To execute a function, we **call** it with the **call operator** `()` as shown many times in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) and above.\n", "To execute a function, we **call** it with the **call operator** `()` as shown many times in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) and above.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"If we are unsure whether a variable references a function or not, we can verify that with the built-in [callable() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#callable) function.\n", "If we are unsure whether a variable references a function or not, we can verify that with the built-in [callable() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#callable) function.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -538,7 +538,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Notice the subtle difference compared to the behavior of the `//` operator in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb##%28Arithmetic#%29-Operators) that \"rounds\" towards minus infinity: [int() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#int) always \"rounds\" towards `0`." "Notice the subtle difference compared to the behavior of the `//` operator in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb##%28Arithmetic#%29-Operators) that \"rounds\" towards minus infinity: [int() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#int) always \"rounds\" towards `0`."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -869,7 +869,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"We may create so-called *user-defined* **functions** with the `def` statement (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/compound_stmts.html#function-definitions)). To extend an already familiar example, we reuse the introductory example from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Best-Practices) in its final Pythonic version and transform it into the function `average_evens()` below. We replace the variable name `numbers` with `integers` for didactical purposes in the first couple of examples.\n", "We may create so-called *user-defined* **functions** with the `def` statement (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/compound_stmts.html#function-definitions)). To extend an already familiar example, we reuse the introductory example from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Best-Practices) in its final Pythonic version and transform it into the function `average_evens()` below. We replace the variable name `numbers` with `integers` for didactical purposes in the first couple of examples.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"A function's **name** must be chosen according to the same naming rules as ordinary variables since Python manages function names like variables. In this book, we further adopt the convention of ending function names with parentheses `()` in text cells for faster comprehension when reading (i.e., `average_evens()` vs. `average_evens`). These are *not* part of the name but must always be written out in the `def` statement for syntactic reasons.\n", "A function's **name** must be chosen according to the same naming rules as ordinary variables since Python manages function names like variables. In this book, we further adopt the convention of ending function names with parentheses `()` in text cells for faster comprehension when reading (i.e., `average_evens()` vs. `average_evens`). These are *not* part of the name but must always be written out in the `def` statement for syntactic reasons.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -881,7 +881,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"A function may specify an *explicit* **return value** (i.e., \"result\" or \"output\") with the `return` statement (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/simple_stmts.html#the-return-statement)): Functions that have one are considered **fruitful**; otherwise, they are **void**. Functions of the latter kind are still useful because of their **side effects**. For example, the built-in [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) function changes what we see on the screen. Strictly speaking, [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) and other void functions also have an *implicit* return value, namely the `None` object.\n", "A function may specify an *explicit* **return value** (i.e., \"result\" or \"output\") with the `return` statement (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/simple_stmts.html#the-return-statement)): Functions that have one are considered **fruitful**; otherwise, they are **void**. Functions of the latter kind are still useful because of their **side effects**. For example, the built-in [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) function changes what we see on the screen. Strictly speaking, [print() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#print) and other void functions also have an *implicit* return value, namely the `None` object.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"A function should define a **docstring** that describes what it does in a short subject line, what parameters it expects (i.e., their types), and what it returns, if anything. A docstring is a syntactically valid multi-line string (i.e., type `str`) defined within **triple-double quotes** `\"\"\"`. Strings are covered in depth in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb#The-str-Type). Widely adopted standards for docstrings are [PEP 257 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0257/) and section 3.8 of [Google's Python Style Guide <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/google/styleguide/blob/gh-pages/pyguide.md)." "A function should define a **docstring** that describes what it does in a short subject line, what parameters it expects (i.e., their types), and what it returns, if anything. A docstring is a syntactically valid multi-line string (i.e., type `str`) defined within **triple-double quotes** `\"\"\"`. Strings are covered in depth in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb#The-str-Type). Widely adopted standards for docstrings are [PEP 257 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0257/) and section 3.8 of [Google's Python Style Guide <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/google/styleguide/blob/gh-pages/pyguide.md)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1012,7 +1012,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Its value may seem awkward at first: It consists of a location showing where the function is defined (i.e., `__main__` here, which is Python's way of saying \"in this notebook\") and the signature wrapped inside angle brackets `<` and `>`.\n", "Its value may seem awkward at first: It consists of a location showing where the function is defined (i.e., `__main__` here, which is Python's way of saying \"in this notebook\") and the signature wrapped inside angle brackets `<` and `>`.\n",
" \n", " \n",
"The angle brackets are a convention to indicate that the value may *not* be used as a *literal* (i.e., typed back into another code cell). [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) introduces the concept of a **text representation** of an object, which is related to the *semantic* meaning of an object's value as discussed in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-\"Meaning\"), and the angle brackets convention is one such way to represent an object as text. When executed, the angle brackets cause a `SyntaxError` because Python expects the `<` operator to come with an operand on both sides (cf., [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Relational-Operators))." "The angle brackets are a convention to indicate that the value may *not* be used as a *literal* (i.e., typed back into another code cell). [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) introduces the concept of a **text representation** of an object, which is related to the *semantic* meaning of an object's value as discussed in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-\"Meaning\"), and the angle brackets convention is one such way to represent an object as text. When executed, the angle brackets cause a `SyntaxError` because Python expects the `<` operator to come with an operand on both sides (cf., [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Relational-Operators))."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1647,7 +1647,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"[PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20%5B7,%2011,%208,%205,%203,%2012,%202,%206,%209,%2010,%201,%204%5D%0A%0Adef%20average_wrong%28integers%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20evens%20%3D%20%5Bn%20for%20n%20in%20numbers%20if%20n%20%25%202%20%3D%3D%200%5D%0A%20%20%20%20average%20%3D%20sum%28evens%29%20/%20len%28evens%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20average%0A%0Aresult%20%3D%20average_wrong%28%5B123,%20456,%20789%5D%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) is again helpful at visualizing the error interactively: Creating the `list` object `evens` eventually references takes *16* computational steps, namely two for managing the list comprehension, one for setting up an empty `list` object, *twelve* for filling it with elements derived from `numbers` in the global scope (i.e., that is the error), and one to make `evens` reference it (cf., steps 6-21).\n", "[PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20%5B7,%2011,%208,%205,%203,%2012,%202,%206,%209,%2010,%201,%204%5D%0A%0Adef%20average_wrong%28integers%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20evens%20%3D%20%5Bn%20for%20n%20in%20numbers%20if%20n%20%25%202%20%3D%3D%200%5D%0A%20%20%20%20average%20%3D%20sum%28evens%29%20/%20len%28evens%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20average%0A%0Aresult%20%3D%20average_wrong%28%5B123,%20456,%20789%5D%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) is again helpful at visualizing the error interactively: Creating the `list` object `evens` eventually references takes *16* computational steps, namely two for managing the list comprehension, one for setting up an empty `list` object, *twelve* for filling it with elements derived from `numbers` in the global scope (i.e., that is the error), and one to make `evens` reference it (cf., steps 6-21).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The frames logic shown by PythonTutor is the mechanism with which Python not only manages the names inside *one* function call but also for *many* potentially *simultaneous* calls, as revealed in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Trivial-Example:-Countdown). It is the reason why we may reuse the same names for the parameters and variables inside both `average_evens()` and `average_wrong()` without Python mixing them up. So, as we already read in the [Zen of Python <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/), \"namespaces are one honking great idea\" (cf., `import this`), and a frame is just a special kind of namespace." "The frames logic shown by PythonTutor is the mechanism with which Python not only manages the names inside *one* function call but also for *many* potentially *simultaneous* calls, as revealed in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Trivial-Example:-Countdown). It is the reason why we may reuse the same names for the parameters and variables inside both `average_evens()` and `average_wrong()` without Python mixing them up. So, as we already read in the [Zen of Python <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0020/), \"namespaces are one honking great idea\" (cf., `import this`), and a frame is just a special kind of namespace."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2021,7 +2021,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"So far, we have specified only one parameter in each of our user-defined functions. In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators), however, we saw the built-in [divmod() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#divmod) function take two arguments. And, the order in which they are passed in matters! Whenever we call a function and list its arguments in a comma separated manner, we say that we pass in the arguments *by position* or refer to them as **positional arguments**." "So far, we have specified only one parameter in each of our user-defined functions. In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators), however, we saw the built-in [divmod() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#divmod) function take two arguments. And, the order in which they are passed in matters! Whenever we call a function and list its arguments in a comma separated manner, we say that we pass in the arguments *by position* or refer to them as **positional arguments**."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -3012,7 +3012,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"The main point of having functions without a reference to them is to use them in a situation where we know ahead of time that we use the function only *once*.\n", "The main point of having functions without a reference to them is to use them in a situation where we know ahead of time that we use the function only *once*.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Popular applications of lambda expressions occur in combination with the **map-filter-reduce** paradigm (cf., [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Lambda-Expressions))." "Popular applications of lambda expressions occur in combination with the **map-filter-reduce** paradigm (cf., [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Lambda-Expressions))."
] ]
} }
], ],

6
02_functions/01_exercises_sphere-volume.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 2.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 2.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"Hints:\n", "Hints:\n",
"- use an appropriate approximation for $\\pi$\n", "- use an appropriate approximation for $\\pi$\n",
"- you may use the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) to do so if you have already looked at the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) of Chapter 2." "- you may use the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) to do so if you have already looked at the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) of Chapter 2."
] ]
}, },
{ {

16
02_functions/02_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/02_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/02_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -434,7 +434,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Observe how the arguments passed to functions do not need to be just variables or simple literals. Instead, we may pass in any *expression* that evaluates to a *new* object of the type the function expects.\n", "Observe how the arguments passed to functions do not need to be just variables or simple literals. Instead, we may pass in any *expression* that evaluates to a *new* object of the type the function expects.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So just as a reminder from the expression vs. statement discussion in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Expressions): An expression is *any* syntactically correct combination of variables and literals with operators. And the call operator `()` is yet another operator. So both of the next two code cells are just expressions! They have no permanent side effects in memory. We may execute them as often as we want *without* changing the state of the program (i.e., this Jupyter notebook).\n", "So just as a reminder from the expression vs. statement discussion in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Expressions): An expression is *any* syntactically correct combination of variables and literals with operators. And the call operator `()` is yet another operator. So both of the next two code cells are just expressions! They have no permanent side effects in memory. We may execute them as often as we want *without* changing the state of the program (i.e., this Jupyter notebook).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So, regarding the very next cell in particular: Although the `2 ** 2` creates a *new* object `4` in memory that is then immediately passed into the [math.sqrt() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html#math.sqrt) function, once that function call returns, \"all is lost\" and the newly created `4` object is forgotten again, as well as the return value of [math.sqrt() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html#math.sqrt)." "So, regarding the very next cell in particular: Although the `2 ** 2` creates a *new* object `4` in memory that is then immediately passed into the [math.sqrt() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html#math.sqrt) function, once that function call returns, \"all is lost\" and the newly created `4` object is forgotten again, as well as the return value of [math.sqrt() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/math.html#math.sqrt)."
] ]
@ -615,7 +615,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Besides the usual dunder-style attributes, the built-in [dir() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#dir) function lists some attributes in an upper case naming convention and many others starting with a *single* underscore `_`. To understand the former, we must wait until [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), while the latter is explained further below." "Besides the usual dunder-style attributes, the built-in [dir() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#dir) function lists some attributes in an upper case naming convention and many others starting with a *single* underscore `_`. To understand the former, we must wait until [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), while the latter is explained further below."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1027,7 +1027,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"[numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is the de-facto standard in the Python world for handling **array-like** data. That is a fancy word for data that can be put into a matrix or vector format.\n", "[numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is the de-facto standard in the Python world for handling **array-like** data. That is a fancy word for data that can be put into a matrix or vector format.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is *not* in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html), it must be *manually* installed, for example, with the [pip](https://pip.pypa.io/en/stable/) tool. As mentioned in [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/00_content.ipynb#Markdown-Cells-vs.-Code-Cells), to execute terminal commands from within a Jupyter notebook, we start a code cell with an exclamation mark.\n", "As [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is *not* in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html), it must be *manually* installed, for example, with the [pip](https://pip.pypa.io/en/stable/) tool. As mentioned in [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/00_content.ipynb#Markdown-Cells-vs.-Code-Cells), to execute terminal commands from within a Jupyter notebook, we start a code cell with an exclamation mark.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"If you are running this notebook with an installation of the [Anaconda Distribution](https://www.anaconda.com/distribution/), then [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is probably already installed. Running the cell below confirms that." "If you are running this notebook with an installation of the [Anaconda Distribution](https://www.anaconda.com/distribution/), then [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) is probably already installed. Running the cell below confirms that."
] ]
@ -1332,7 +1332,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"For sure, we can create local modules and packages. In the Chapter 2 directory, there is a [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/sample_module.py) file that contains, among others, a function equivalent to the final version of `average_evens()`. To be realistic, this sample module is structured in a modular manner with several functions building on each other. It is best to skim over it *now* before reading on.\n", "For sure, we can create local modules and packages. In the Chapter 2 directory, there is a [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/sample_module.py) file that contains, among others, a function equivalent to the final version of `average_evens()`. To be realistic, this sample module is structured in a modular manner with several functions building on each other. It is best to skim over it *now* before reading on.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"To make code we put into a *.py* file available in our program, we import it as a module just as we did above with modules in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) or third-party packages.\n", "To make code we put into a *.py* file available in our program, we import it as a module just as we did above with modules in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) or third-party packages.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1418,7 +1418,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Disregarding the dunder-style attributes, `mod` defines the attributes `_round_all`, `_scaled_average`, `average`, `average_evens`, and `average_odds`, which are exactly the ones we would expect from reading the [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/sample_module.py) file.\n", "Disregarding the dunder-style attributes, `mod` defines the attributes `_round_all`, `_scaled_average`, `average`, `average_evens`, and `average_odds`, which are exactly the ones we would expect from reading the [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/sample_module.py) file.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"A convention when working with imported code is to *disregard* any attributes starting with a single underscore `_`. These are considered **private** and constitute **implementation details** the author of the imported code might change in a future version of his software. We *must not* rely on them in any way.\n", "A convention when working with imported code is to *disregard* any attributes starting with a single underscore `_`. These are considered **private** and constitute **implementation details** the author of the imported code might change in a future version of his software. We *must not* rely on them in any way.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1469,7 +1469,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"We use the imported `mod.average_evens()` just like `average_evens()` defined in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter. The advantage we get from **modularization** with *.py* files is that we can now easily reuse functions across different Jupyter notebooks without redefining them again and again. Also, we can \"source out\" code that distracts from the storyline told in a notebook." "We use the imported `mod.average_evens()` just like `average_evens()` defined in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter. The advantage we get from **modularization** with *.py* files is that we can now easily reuse functions across different Jupyter notebooks without redefining them again and again. Also, we can \"source out\" code that distracts from the storyline told in a notebook."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1585,7 +1585,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Packages are a generalization of modules, and we look at one in detail in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/04_content.ipynb#Packages-vs.-Modules).\n", "Packages are a generalization of modules, and we look at one in detail in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/04_content.ipynb#Packages-vs.-Modules).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As a further reading on modules and packages, we refer to the [official tutorial <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html)." "As a further reading on modules and packages, we refer to the [official tutorial <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/modules.html)."
] ]

2
02_functions/04_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) and the [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 2.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) and the [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 2.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

10
03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"We analyzed every aspect of the `average_evens()` function in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) except for the `if`-related parts. While it does what we expect it to, there is a whole lot more to learn by taking it apart. In particular, the `if` may occur within both a **statement** or an **expression**, analogous as to how a noun in a natural language can be the subject of *or* an object in a sentence. What is common to both usages is that it leads to code being executed for *parts* of the input only. It is a way of controlling the **flow of execution** in a program.\n", "We analyzed every aspect of the `average_evens()` function in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) except for the `if`-related parts. While it does what we expect it to, there is a whole lot more to learn by taking it apart. In particular, the `if` may occur within both a **statement** or an **expression**, analogous as to how a noun in a natural language can be the subject of *or* an object in a sentence. What is common to both usages is that it leads to code being executed for *parts* of the input only. It is a way of controlling the **flow of execution** in a program.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"After deconstructing `if` in the first part of this chapter, we take a close look at a similar concept, namely handling **exceptions**." "After deconstructing `if` in the first part of this chapter, we take a close look at a similar concept, namely handling **exceptions**."
] ]
@ -150,7 +150,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"There are, however, cases where the `==` operator seems to not work intuitively. [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Imprecision) provides more insights into this \"bug.\"" "There are, however, cases where the `==` operator seems to not work intuitively. [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Imprecision) provides more insights into this \"bug.\""
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -351,7 +351,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Let's not confuse the boolean `False` with `None`, another built-in object! We saw the latter before in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions) as the *implicit* return value of a function without a `return` statement.\n", "Let's not confuse the boolean `False` with `None`, another built-in object! We saw the latter before in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions) as the *implicit* return value of a function without a `return` statement.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We might think of `None` indicating a \"maybe\" or even an \"unknown\" answer; however, for Python, there are no \"maybe\" or \"unknown\" objects, as we see further below!\n", "We might think of `None` indicating a \"maybe\" or even an \"unknown\" answer; however, for Python, there are no \"maybe\" or \"unknown\" objects, as we see further below!\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -438,7 +438,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"`True`, `False`, and `None` have the property that they each exist in memory only *once*. Objects designed this way are so-called **singletons**. This **[design pattern <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Patterns)** was originally developed to keep a program's memory usage at a minimum. It may only be employed in situations where we know that an object does *not* mutate its value (i.e., to reuse the bag analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values), no flipping of $0$s and $1$s in the bag is allowed). In languages \"closer\" to the memory like C, we would have to code this singleton logic ourselves, but Python has this built in for *some* types.\n", "`True`, `False`, and `None` have the property that they each exist in memory only *once*. Objects designed this way are so-called **singletons**. This **[design pattern <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Design_Patterns)** was originally developed to keep a program's memory usage at a minimum. It may only be employed in situations where we know that an object does *not* mutate its value (i.e., to reuse the bag analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values), no flipping of $0$s and $1$s in the bag is allowed). In languages \"closer\" to the memory like C, we would have to code this singleton logic ourselves, but Python has this built in for *some* types.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We verify this with either the `is` operator or by comparing memory addresses." "We verify this with either the `is` operator or by comparing memory addresses."
] ]

4
03_conditionals/01_exercises_discounts.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

6
03_conditionals/02_exercises_fizz-buzz.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/02_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/02_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -61,7 +61,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q2**: Loop over the `numbers` list and *replace* numbers for which one of the two (or both) conditions apply with text strings `\"Fizz\"`, `\"Buzz\"`, or `\"FizzBuzz\"` using the indexing operator `[]` and the assignment statement `=`.\n", "**Q2**: Loop over the `numbers` list and *replace* numbers for which one of the two (or both) conditions apply with text strings `\"Fizz\"`, `\"Buzz\"`, or `\"FizzBuzz\"` using the indexing operator `[]` and the assignment statement `=`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), we saw that Python starts indexing with `0` as the first element. Keep that in mind.\n", "In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), we saw that Python starts indexing with `0` as the first element. Keep that in mind.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So in each iteration of the `for`-loop, you have to determine an `index` variable as well as check the actual `number` for its divisors.\n", "So in each iteration of the `for`-loop, you have to determine an `index` variable as well as check the actual `number` for its divisors.\n",
"\n", "\n",

2
03_conditionals/04_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n", "The questions below assume that you have read [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

4
04_iteration/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -874,7 +874,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"To understand this in detail, we have to study algorithms and data structures (e.g., with [this book](https://www.amazon.de/Introduction-Algorithms-Press-Thomas-Cormen/dp/0262033844/ref=sr_1_1?__mk_de_DE=%C3%85M%C3%85%C5%BD%C3%95%C3%91&crid=1JNE8U0VZGU0O&qid=1569837169&s=gateway&sprefix=algorithms+an%2Caps%2C180&sr=8-1)), a discipline within computer science, and dive into the analysis of **[time complexity of algorithms <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity)**.\n", "To understand this in detail, we have to study algorithms and data structures (e.g., with [this book](https://www.amazon.de/Introduction-Algorithms-Press-Thomas-Cormen/dp/0262033844/ref=sr_1_1?__mk_de_DE=%C3%85M%C3%85%C5%BD%C3%95%C3%91&crid=1JNE8U0VZGU0O&qid=1569837169&s=gateway&sprefix=algorithms+an%2Caps%2C180&sr=8-1)), a discipline within computer science, and dive into the analysis of **[time complexity of algorithms <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Time_complexity)**.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Luckily, in the Fibonacci case, the inefficiency can be resolved with a **caching** (i.e., \"reuse\") strategy from the field of **[dynamic programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming)**, namely **[memoization <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization)**. We do so in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#Memoization), after introducing the `dict` data type.\n", "Luckily, in the Fibonacci case, the inefficiency can be resolved with a **caching** (i.e., \"reuse\") strategy from the field of **[dynamic programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dynamic_programming)**, namely **[memoization <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Memoization)**. We do so in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#Memoization), after introducing the `dict` data type.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's measure the average run times for `fibonacci()` and varying `i` arguments with the `%%timeit` [cell magic](https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/interactive/magics.html#magic-timeit) that comes with Jupyter." "Let's measure the average run times for `fibonacci()` and varying `i` arguments with the `%%timeit` [cell magic](https://ipython.readthedocs.io/en/stable/interactive/magics.html#magic-timeit) that comes with Jupyter."
] ]

4
04_iteration/01_exercises_hanoi-towers.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 4.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 4.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

10
04_iteration/02_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"After learning about the concept of **recursion** in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we look at other ways of running code repeatedly, namely **looping** with the `for` and `while` statements. We start with the latter as it is more generic. Throughout this second part of the chapter, we revisit the same examples from the first part to show how recursion and looping are really two sides of the same coin." "After learning about the concept of **recursion** in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we look at other ways of running code repeatedly, namely **looping** with the `for` and `while` statements. We start with the latter as it is more generic. Throughout this second part of the chapter, we revisit the same examples from the first part to show how recursion and looping are really two sides of the same coin."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -582,7 +582,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"For sequences of integers, the [range() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-range) built-in makes the `for` statement even more convenient: It creates a `list`-like object of type `range` that generates integers \"on the fly,\" and we look closely at the underlying effects in memory in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Mapping)." "For sequences of integers, the [range() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-range) built-in makes the `for` statement even more convenient: It creates a `list`-like object of type `range` that generates integers \"on the fly,\" and we look closely at the underlying effects in memory in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Mapping)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -713,11 +713,11 @@
"\n", "\n",
"Now, just as we classify objects by data type, we also classify these data types (e.g., `int`, `float`, `str`, or `list`) into **abstract concepts**.\n", "Now, just as we classify objects by data type, we also classify these data types (e.g., `int`, `float`, `str`, or `list`) into **abstract concepts**.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We did this already in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?) when we described a `list` object as \"some sort of container that holds [...] references to other objects\". So, abstractly speaking, **containers** are any objects that are \"composed\" of other objects and also \"manage\" how these objects are organized. `list` objects, for example, have the property that they model an order associated with their elements. There exist, however, other container types, many of which do *not* come with an order. So, containers primarily \"contain\" other objects and have *nothing* to do with looping.\n", "We did this already in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?) when we described a `list` object as \"some sort of container that holds [...] references to other objects\". So, abstractly speaking, **containers** are any objects that are \"composed\" of other objects and also \"manage\" how these objects are organized. `list` objects, for example, have the property that they model an order associated with their elements. There exist, however, other container types, many of which do *not* come with an order. So, containers primarily \"contain\" other objects and have *nothing* to do with looping.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"On the contrary, the abstract concept of **iterables** is all about looping: Any object that we can loop over is, by definition, an iterable. So, `range` objects, for example, are iterables, even though they hold no references to other objects. Moreover, looping does *not* have to occur in a *predictable* order, although this is the case for both `list` and `range` objects.\n", "On the contrary, the abstract concept of **iterables** is all about looping: Any object that we can loop over is, by definition, an iterable. So, `range` objects, for example, are iterables, even though they hold no references to other objects. Moreover, looping does *not* have to occur in a *predictable* order, although this is the case for both `list` and `range` objects.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Typically, containers are iterables, and iterables are containers. Yet, only because these two concepts coincide often, we must not think of them as the same. In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we formalize these two concepts and introduce many more. Finally, [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) gives an explanation how abstract concepts are implemented and play together.\n", "Typically, containers are iterables, and iterables are containers. Yet, only because these two concepts coincide often, we must not think of them as the same. In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we formalize these two concepts and introduce many more. Finally, [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) gives an explanation how abstract concepts are implemented and play together.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's continue with `first_names` below as an example an illustrate what iterable containers are." "Let's continue with `first_names` below as an example an illustrate what iterable containers are."
] ]

10
04_iteration/03_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"While what we learned about the `for` and `while` statements in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb) of this chapter suffices to translate any iterative algorithm into code, both come with some syntactic sugar to make life easier for the developer. This last part of the chapter shows how we can further customize the looping logic and introduces as \"trick\" for situations where we cannot come up with a stopping criterion in a `while`-loop." "While what we learned about the `for` and `while` statements in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb) of this chapter suffices to translate any iterative algorithm into code, both come with some syntactic sugar to make life easier for the developer. This last part of the chapter shows how we can further customize the looping logic and introduces as \"trick\" for situations where we cannot come up with a stopping criterion in a `while`-loop."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -352,7 +352,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Often, we process some iterable with numeric data, for example, a list of `numbers` as in this book's introductory example in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List) or, more realistically, data from a CSV file with many rows and columns.\n", "Often, we process some iterable with numeric data, for example, a list of `numbers` as in this book's introductory example in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List) or, more realistically, data from a CSV file with many rows and columns.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Processing numeric data usually comes down to operations that may be grouped into one of the following three categories:\n", "Processing numeric data usually comes down to operations that may be grouped into one of the following three categories:\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -360,7 +360,7 @@
"- **filtering**: throw away individual numbers (e.g., statistical outliers in a sample)\n", "- **filtering**: throw away individual numbers (e.g., statistical outliers in a sample)\n",
"- **reducing**: collect individual numbers into summary statistics\n", "- **reducing**: collect individual numbers into summary statistics\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We study this **map-filter-reduce** paradigm extensively in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) after introducing more advanced data types that are needed to work with \"big\" data.\n", "We study this **map-filter-reduce** paradigm extensively in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) after introducing more advanced data types that are needed to work with \"big\" data.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Here, we focus on *filtering out* some numbers in a `for`-loop." "Here, we focus on *filtering out* some numbers in a `for`-loop."
] ]
@ -535,7 +535,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"With already three levels of indentation, less horizontal space is available for the actual code block. Of course, one could flatten the two `if` statements with the logical `and` operator, as shown in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#The-if-Statement). Then, however, we trade off horizontal space against a more \"complex\" `if` logic, and this is *not* a real improvement." "With already three levels of indentation, less horizontal space is available for the actual code block. Of course, one could flatten the two `if` statements with the logical `and` operator, as shown in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#The-if-Statement). Then, however, we trade off horizontal space against a more \"complex\" `if` logic, and this is *not* a real improvement."
] ]
}, },
{ {

6
04_iteration/04_exercises_dice.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/04_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/04_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) of Chapter 4.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) of Chapter 4.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"In this exercise, you will model the throwing of dice within the context of a guessing game similar to the one shown in the \"*Example: Guessing a Coin Toss*\" section in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Guessing-a-Coin-Toss).\n", "In this exercise, you will model the throwing of dice within the context of a guessing game similar to the one shown in the \"*Example: Guessing a Coin Toss*\" section in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Guessing-a-Coin-Toss).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As the game involves randomness, we import the [random <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html) module from the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html). To follow best practices, we set the random seed as well." "As the game involves randomness, we import the [random <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/random.html) module from the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html). To follow best practices, we set the random seed as well."
] ]

2
04_iteration/06_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 4.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 4.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

22
05_numbers/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -32,17 +32,17 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"After learning about the basic building blocks of expressing and structuring the business logic in programs, we focus our attention on the **data types** Python offers us, both built-in and available via the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) or third-party packages.\n", "After learning about the basic building blocks of expressing and structuring the business logic in programs, we focus our attention on the **data types** Python offers us, both built-in and available via the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) or third-party packages.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We start with the \"simple\" ones: Numeric types in this chapter and textual data in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb). An important fact that holds for all objects of these types is that they are **immutable**. To reuse the bag analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values), this means that the $0$s and $1$s making up an object's *value* cannot be changed once the bag is created in memory, implying that any operation with or method on the object creates a *new* object in a *different* memory location.\n", "We start with the \"simple\" ones: Numeric types in this chapter and textual data in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb). An important fact that holds for all objects of these types is that they are **immutable**. To reuse the bag analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values), this means that the $0$s and $1$s making up an object's *value* cannot be changed once the bag is created in memory, implying that any operation with or method on the object creates a *new* object in a *different* memory location.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/10_arrarys/00_content.ipynb) then cover the more \"complex\" data types, including, for example, the `list` type. Finally, [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) completes the picture by introducing language constructs to create custom types.\n", "[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/10_arrarys/00_content.ipynb) then cover the more \"complex\" data types, including, for example, the `list` type. Finally, [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) completes the picture by introducing language constructs to create custom types.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We have already seen many hints indicating that numbers are not as trivial to work with as it seems at first sight:\n", "We have already seen many hints indicating that numbers are not as trivial to work with as it seems at first sight:\n",
"\n", "\n",
"- [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Data%29-Type-%2F-%22Behavior%22) reveals that numbers may come in *different* data types (i.e., `int` vs. `float` so far),\n", "- [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Data%29-Type-%2F-%22Behavior%22) reveals that numbers may come in *different* data types (i.e., `int` vs. `float` so far),\n",
"- [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Boolean-Expressions) raises questions regarding the **limited precision** of `float` numbers (e.g., `42 == 42.000000000000001` evaluates to `True`), and\n", "- [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Boolean-Expressions) raises questions regarding the **limited precision** of `float` numbers (e.g., `42 == 42.000000000000001` evaluates to `True`), and\n",
"- [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Infinite-Recursion) shows that sometimes a `float` \"walks\" and \"quacks\" like an `int`, whereas the reverse is true in other cases.\n", "- [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Infinite-Recursion) shows that sometimes a `float` \"walks\" and \"quacks\" like an `int`, whereas the reverse is true in other cases.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"This chapter introduces all the [built-in numeric types <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#numeric-types-int-float-complex): `int`, `float`, and `complex`. To mitigate the limited precision of floating-point numbers, we also add an [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb) where we look at two replacements for the `float` type in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html), namely the `Decimal` type in the [decimals <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal) and the `Fraction` type in the [fractions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction) module." "This chapter introduces all the [built-in numeric types <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#numeric-types-int-float-complex): `int`, `float`, and `complex`. To mitigate the limited precision of floating-point numbers, we also add an [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb) where we look at two replacements for the `float` type in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html), namely the `Decimal` type in the [decimals <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/decimal.html#decimal.Decimal) and the `Fraction` type in the [fractions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/fractions.html#fractions.Fraction) module."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -64,7 +64,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The simplest numeric type is the `int` type: It behaves like an [integer in ordinary math <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer) (i.e., the set $\\mathbb{Z}$) and supports operators in the way we saw in the section on arithmetic operators in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators).\n", "The simplest numeric type is the `int` type: It behaves like an [integer in ordinary math <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Integer) (i.e., the set $\\mathbb{Z}$) and supports operators in the way we saw in the section on arithmetic operators in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"One way to create `int` objects is by simply writing its value as a literal with the digits `0` to `9`." "One way to create `int` objects is by simply writing its value as a literal with the digits `0` to `9`."
] ]
@ -335,7 +335,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Whereas the integer division operator `//` \"rounds\" towards negative infinity (cf., the \"*(Arithmetic) Operators*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators)), the [int() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#int) built-in rounds towards `0`." "Whereas the integer division operator `//` \"rounds\" towards negative infinity (cf., the \"*(Arithmetic) Operators*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators)), the [int() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#int) built-in rounds towards `0`."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1104,7 +1104,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) section at the end of this chapter provides video tutorials on addition and multiplication in binary. Subtraction and division are a bit more involved but essentially also easy to understand." "The [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) section at the end of this chapter provides video tutorials on addition and multiplication in binary. Subtraction and division are a bit more involved but essentially also easy to understand."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1575,7 +1575,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"While there are conventions that model negative integers with $0$s and $1$s in memory (cf., [Two's Complement <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement)), Python manages that for us, and we do not look into the theory here for brevity. We have learned all that a practitioner needs to know about how integers are modeled in a computer. The [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) section at the end of this chapter provides a video tutorial on how the [Two's Complement <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement) idea works.\n", "While there are conventions that model negative integers with $0$s and $1$s in memory (cf., [Two's Complement <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement)), Python manages that for us, and we do not look into the theory here for brevity. We have learned all that a practitioner needs to know about how integers are modeled in a computer. The [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) section at the end of this chapter provides a video tutorial on how the [Two's Complement <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Two%27s_complement) idea works.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The binary and hexadecimal representations of negative integers are identical to their positive counterparts except that they start with a minus sign `-`. However, as the video tutorial at the end of the chapter reveals, that is *not* how the bits are organized in memory." "The binary and hexadecimal representations of negative integers are identical to their positive counterparts except that they start with a minus sign `-`. However, as the video tutorial at the end of the chapter reveals, that is *not* how the bits are organized in memory."
] ]

6
05_numbers/01_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1496,7 +1496,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"The built-in [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function allows us to show the **significant digits** of a `float` number as they exist in memory to arbitrary precision. To exemplify it, let's view a couple of `float` objects with `50` digits. This analysis reveals that almost no `float` number is precise! After 14 or 15 digits \"weird\" things happen. As we see further below, the \"random\" digits ending the `float` numbers do *not* \"physically\" exist in memory! Rather, they are \"calculated\" by the [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function that is forced to show `50` digits.\n", "The built-in [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function allows us to show the **significant digits** of a `float` number as they exist in memory to arbitrary precision. To exemplify it, let's view a couple of `float` objects with `50` digits. This analysis reveals that almost no `float` number is precise! After 14 or 15 digits \"weird\" things happen. As we see further below, the \"random\" digits ending the `float` numbers do *not* \"physically\" exist in memory! Rather, they are \"calculated\" by the [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function that is forced to show `50` digits.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function is different from the [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.format) method on `str` objects introduced in the next chapter (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb#format%28%29-Method)): Yet, both work with the so-called [format specification mini-language <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#format-specification-mini-language): `\".50f\"` is the instruction to show `50` digits of a `float` number." "The [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#format) function is different from the [format() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.format) method on `str` objects introduced in the next chapter (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb#format%28%29-Method)): Yet, both work with the so-called [format specification mini-language <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/string.html#format-specification-mini-language): `\".50f\"` is the instruction to show `50` digits of a `float` number."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2030,7 +2030,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As seen in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Data%29-Type-%2F-%22Behavior%22), the [.is_integer() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer) method tells us if a `float` can be casted as an `int` object without any loss in precision." "As seen in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Data%29-Type-%2F-%22Behavior%22), the [.is_integer() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#float.is_integer) method tells us if a `float` can be casted as an `int` object without any loss in precision."
] ]
}, },
{ {

8
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -697,7 +697,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Analogous to the discussion of *containers* and *iterables* in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), we contrast the *concrete* numeric data types in this chapter with the *abstract* ideas behind [numbers in mathematics <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number).\n", "Analogous to the discussion of *containers* and *iterables* in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), we contrast the *concrete* numeric data types in this chapter with the *abstract* ideas behind [numbers in mathematics <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The figure below summarizes five *major* sets of [numbers in mathematics <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number) as we know them from high school:\n", "The figure below summarizes five *major* sets of [numbers in mathematics <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Number) as we know them from high school:\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -819,7 +819,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"For, example, as all numeric data types are `Complex` numbers in the abstract sense, they all work with the built-in [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) function (cf., [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex)). While it is intuitively clear what the [absolute value <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value) (i.e., \"distance\" from $0$) of an integer, a fraction, or any real number is, [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) calculates the equivalent of that for complex numbers. That concept is called the [magnitude <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_%28mathematics%29) of a number, and is really a *generalization* of the absolute value.\n", "For, example, as all numeric data types are `Complex` numbers in the abstract sense, they all work with the built-in [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) function (cf., [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html#numbers.Complex)). While it is intuitively clear what the [absolute value <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Absolute_value) (i.e., \"distance\" from $0$) of an integer, a fraction, or any real number is, [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) calculates the equivalent of that for complex numbers. That concept is called the [magnitude <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnitude_%28mathematics%29) of a number, and is really a *generalization* of the absolute value.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Relating back to the concept of **duck typing** mentioned in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Duck-Typing), `int`, `float`, and `complex` objects \"walk\" and \"quack\" alike in context of the [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) function." "Relating back to the concept of **duck typing** mentioned in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Duck-Typing), `int`, `float`, and `complex` objects \"walk\" and \"quack\" alike in context of the [abs() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#abs) function."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1174,7 +1174,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"However, if we model `1 / 10` as a `Fraction` object (cf., [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb#The-Fraction-Type)), it is recognized as a `Rational` number." "However, if we model `1 / 10` as a `Fraction` object (cf., [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb#The-Fraction-Type)), it is recognized as a `Rational` number."
] ]
}, },
{ {

2
05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

2
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 5. Some questions regard the [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb); that is indicated with a **\\***.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 5. Some questions regard the [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb); that is indicated with a **\\***.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

2
05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

34
06_text/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In this chapter, we continue the study of the built-in data types. The next layer on top of numbers consists of **textual data** that are modeled primarily with the `str` type in Python. `str` objects are more complex than the numeric objects in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) as they *consist* of an *arbitrary* and possibly large number of *individual* characters that may be chosen from *any* alphabet in the history of humankind. Luckily, Python abstracts away most of this complexity from us. However, after looking at the `str` type in great detail, we briefly introduce the `bytes` type at the end of this chapter to understand how characters are modeled in memory." "In this chapter, we continue the study of the built-in data types. The next layer on top of numbers consists of **textual data** that are modeled primarily with the `str` type in Python. `str` objects are more complex than the numeric objects in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) as they *consist* of an *arbitrary* and possibly large number of *individual* characters that may be chosen from *any* alphabet in the history of humankind. Luckily, Python abstracts away most of this complexity from us. However, after looking at the `str` type in great detail, we briefly introduce the `bytes` type at the end of this chapter to understand how characters are modeled in memory."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -137,7 +137,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"As seen before, a `str` object evaluates to itself in a literal notation with enclosing **single quotes** `'`.\n", "As seen before, a `str` object evaluates to itself in a literal notation with enclosing **single quotes** `'`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-(Semantic)-\"Meaning\"), we specify the double quotes `\"` convention this book follows. Yet, single quotes `'` and double quotes `\"` are *perfect* substitutes. We could use the reverse convention, as well. As [this discussion <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_so.png\">](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/56011/single-quotes-vs-double-quotes-in-python) shows, many programmers have *strong* opinions about such conventions. Consequently, the discussion was \"closed as not constructive\" by the moderators." "In [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-(Semantic)-\"Meaning\"), we specify the double quotes `\"` convention this book follows. Yet, single quotes `'` and double quotes `\"` are *perfect* substitutes. We could use the reverse convention, as well. As [this discussion <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_so.png\">](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/56011/single-quotes-vs-double-quotes-in-python) shows, many programmers have *strong* opinions about such conventions. Consequently, the discussion was \"closed as not constructive\" by the moderators."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -290,7 +290,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As an alternative to the literal notation, we may use the built-in [str() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str) constructor to cast non-`str` objects as `str` ones. As [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) reveals, basically any object in Python has a **text representation**. Because of that we may also pass `list` objects, the boolean `True` and `False`, or `None` to [str() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str)." "As an alternative to the literal notation, we may use the built-in [str() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str) constructor to cast non-`str` objects as `str` ones. As [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) reveals, basically any object in Python has a **text representation**. Because of that we may also pass `list` objects, the boolean `True` and `False`, or `None` to [str() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -456,7 +456,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As shown in the \"*Guessing a Coin Toss*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Guessing-a-Coin-Toss), the built-in [input() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#input) function displays a prompt to the user and returns whatever is entered as a `str` object. [input() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#input) is in particular valuable when writing command-line tools." "As shown in the \"*Guessing a Coin Toss*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Guessing-a-Coin-Toss), the built-in [input() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#input) function displays a prompt to the user and returns whatever is entered as a `str` object. [input() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#input) is in particular valuable when writing command-line tools."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -571,7 +571,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"[open() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#open) returns a **[proxy <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_pattern)** object of type `TextIOWrapper` that allows us to interact with the file on disk. `mode='r'` shows that we opened the file in read-only mode and `encoding='UTF-8'` is explained in detail in the [The `bytes` Type <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/01_content.ipynb#The-bytes-Type) section at the end of this chapter." "[open() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#open) returns a **[proxy <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proxy_pattern)** object of type `TextIOWrapper` that allows us to interact with the file on disk. `mode='r'` shows that we opened the file in read-only mode and `encoding='UTF-8'` is explained in detail in the [The `bytes` Type <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/01_content.ipynb#The-bytes-Type) section at the end of this chapter."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1010,7 +1010,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Using syntax familiar from [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#The-try-Statement) to explain what the `with open(...) as file:` does above, we provide an alternative formulation with a `try` statement below: The `finally`-branch is *always* executed, even if an exception is raised inside the `for`-loop. Therefore, `file` is sure to be closed too. However, this formulation is somewhat less expressive." "Using syntax familiar from [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#The-try-Statement) to explain what the `with open(...) as file:` does above, we provide an alternative formulation with a `try` statement below: The `finally`-branch is *always* executed, even if an exception is raised inside the `for`-loop. Therefore, `file` is sure to be closed too. However, this formulation is somewhat less expressive."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1373,7 +1373,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"A **sequence** is yet another *abstract* concept (cf., the \"*Containers vs. Iterables*\" section in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables)).\n", "A **sequence** is yet another *abstract* concept (cf., the \"*Containers vs. Iterables*\" section in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables)).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"It unifies *four* [orthogonal <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality) (i.e., \"independent\") concepts into one bigger idea: Any data type, such as `str`, is considered a sequence if it\n", "It unifies *four* [orthogonal <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality) (i.e., \"independent\") concepts into one bigger idea: Any data type, such as `str`, is considered a sequence if it\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1382,11 +1382,11 @@
"3. can be **iterated** over\n", "3. can be **iterated** over\n",
"4. in a *predictable* **order**.\n", "4. in a *predictable* **order**.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences) formalizes these concepts in great detail. Here, we keep our focus on the `str` type that historically received its name as it models a **[string of characters <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29)**. *String* is simply another term for *sequence* in the computer science literature.\n", "[Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences) formalizes these concepts in great detail. Here, we keep our focus on the `str` type that historically received its name as it models a **[string of characters <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String_%28computer_science%29)**. *String* is simply another term for *sequence* in the computer science literature.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Another example of a sequence is the `list` type. Because of that, `str` objects may be treated like `list` objects in many situations.\n", "Another example of a sequence is the `list` type. Because of that, `str` objects may be treated like `list` objects in many situations.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Below, the built-in [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) function tells us how many characters make up `text`. [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) would not work with an \"infinite\" object. As anything modeled in a program must fit into a computer's finite memory, there cannot exist truly infinite objects; however, [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Iterators-vs.-Iterables) introduces specialized iterable data types that can be used to model an *infinite* series of \"things\" and that, consequently, have no concept of \"length.\"" "Below, the built-in [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) function tells us how many characters make up `text`. [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) would not work with an \"infinite\" object. As anything modeled in a program must fit into a computer's finite memory, there cannot exist truly infinite objects; however, [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb#Iterators-vs.-Iterables) introduces specialized iterable data types that can be used to model an *infinite* series of \"things\" and that, consequently, have no concept of \"length.\""
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1605,7 +1605,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As `str` objects are *ordered* and *finite*, we may **index** into them to obtain individual characters with the **indexing operator** `[]`. This is analogous to how we obtained individual elements of a `list` object in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?)." "As `str` objects are *ordered* and *finite*, we may **index** into them to obtain individual characters with the **indexing operator** `[]`. This is analogous to how we obtained individual elements of a `list` object in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2292,9 +2292,9 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Whereas elements of a `list` object *may* be *re-assigned*, as shortly hinted at in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), this is *not* allowed for the individual characters of `str` objects. Once created, they can *not* be changed. Formally, we say that `str` objects are **immutable**. In that regard, they are like the numeric types in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb).\n", "Whereas elements of a `list` object *may* be *re-assigned*, as shortly hinted at in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), this is *not* allowed for the individual characters of `str` objects. Once created, they can *not* be changed. Formally, we say that `str` objects are **immutable**. In that regard, they are like the numeric types in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"On the contrary, objects that may be changed after creation, are called **mutable**. We already saw in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?) how mutable objects are more difficult to reason about for a beginner, in particular, if more than one variable references it. Yet, mutability does have its place in a programmer's toolbox, and we revisit this idea in the next chapters.\n", "On the contrary, objects that may be changed after creation, are called **mutable**. We already saw in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?) how mutable objects are more difficult to reason about for a beginner, in particular, if more than one variable references it. Yet, mutability does have its place in a programmer's toolbox, and we revisit this idea in the next chapters.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `TypeError` indicates that `str` objects are *immutable*: Assignment to an index or a slice are *not* supported." "The `TypeError` indicates that `str` objects are *immutable*: Assignment to an index or a slice are *not* supported."
] ]
@ -3377,7 +3377,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As mentioned in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Operator-Overloading), the `+` and `*` operators are *overloaded* and used for **string concatenation**. They always create *new* `str` objects. That has nothing to do with the `str` type's immutability, but is the default behavior of operators." "As mentioned in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Operator-Overloading), the `+` and `*` operators are *overloaded* and used for **string concatenation**. They always create *new* `str` objects. That has nothing to do with the `str` type's immutability, but is the default behavior of operators."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -3447,7 +3447,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The *relational* operators also work with `str` objects, another example of operator overloading. Comparison is done one character at a time in a pairwise fashion until the first pair differs or one operand ends. However, `str` objects are sorted in a \"weird\" way. For example, all upper case characters come before all lower case characters. The reason for that is given in the \"*Characters are Numbers with a Convention*\" sub-section in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/02_content.ipynb#Characters-are-Numbers-with-a-Convention) of this chapter." "The *relational* operators also work with `str` objects, another example of operator overloading. Comparison is done one character at a time in a pairwise fashion until the first pair differs or one operand ends. However, `str` objects are sorted in a \"weird\" way. For example, all upper case characters come before all lower case characters. The reason for that is given in the \"*Characters are Numbers with a Convention*\" sub-section in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/02_content.ipynb#Characters-are-Numbers-with-a-Convention) of this chapter."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -3857,7 +3857,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The `%` operator that we saw in the context of modulo division in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators) is overloaded with string interpolation when its first operand is a `str` object. The second operand consists of all expressions to be filled in. Format specifiers work with a `%` instead of curly braces and according to a different set of rules referred to as **[printf-style string formatting <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#printf-style-string-formatting)**. So, `{:.2f}` becomes `%.2f`.\n", "The `%` operator that we saw in the context of modulo division in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#%28Arithmetic%29-Operators) is overloaded with string interpolation when its first operand is a `str` object. The second operand consists of all expressions to be filled in. Format specifiers work with a `%` instead of curly braces and according to a different set of rules referred to as **[printf-style string formatting <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#printf-style-string-formatting)**. So, `{:.2f}` becomes `%.2f`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"This way of string interpolation is the oldest and originates from the [C language <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29). It is still widely spread, but we should use one of the other two ways instead. We show it here mainly for completeness sake." "This way of string interpolation is the oldest and originates from the [C language <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/C_%28programming_language%29). It is still widely spread, but we should use one of the other two ways instead. We show it here mainly for completeness sake."
] ]
@ -3894,7 +3894,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"To insert more than one expression, we must list them in order and between parenthesis `(` and `)`. As [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#The-tuple-Type) reveals, this literal syntax creates an object of type `tuple`. Also, to format an expression as text, we use the format specifier `%s`." "To insert more than one expression, we must list them in order and between parenthesis `(` and `)`. As [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#The-tuple-Type) reveals, this literal syntax creates an object of type `tuple`. Also, to format an expression as text, we use the format specifier `%s`."
] ]
}, },
{ {

6
06_text/01_exercises_palindromes.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 6.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 6.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"In this exercise, you implement various functions that check if the given arguments are palindromes or not. We start with an iterative implementation and end with a recursive one.\n", "In this exercise, you implement various functions that check if the given arguments are palindromes or not. We start with an iterative implementation and end with a recursive one.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Conceptually, the first function, `unpythonic_palindrome()`, is similar to the \"*Is the square of a number in `[7, 11, 8, 5, 3, 12, 2, 6, 9, 10, 1, 4]` greater than `100`?*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Is-the-square-of-a-number-in-[7,-11,-8,-5,-3,-12,-2,-6,-9,-10,-1,-4]-greater-than-100?): It assumes that the `text` argument is a palindrome (i.e., it initializes `is_palindrom` to `True`) and then checks in a `for`-loop if a pair of corresponding characters, `forward` and `backward`, contradicts that.\n", "Conceptually, the first function, `unpythonic_palindrome()`, is similar to the \"*Is the square of a number in `[7, 11, 8, 5, 3, 12, 2, 6, 9, 10, 1, 4]` greater than `100`?*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-Is-the-square-of-a-number-in-[7,-11,-8,-5,-3,-12,-2,-6,-9,-10,-1,-4]-greater-than-100?): It assumes that the `text` argument is a palindrome (i.e., it initializes `is_palindrom` to `True`) and then checks in a `for`-loop if a pair of corresponding characters, `forward` and `backward`, contradicts that.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"**Q1**: How many iterations are needed in the `for`-loop? Take into account that `text` may contain an even or odd number of characters! Inside `unpythonic_palindrome()` below, write an expression whose result is assigned to `chars_to_check`!" "**Q1**: How many iterations are needed in the `for`-loop? Take into account that `text` may contain an even or odd number of characters! Inside `unpythonic_palindrome()` below, write an expression whose result is assigned to `chars_to_check`!"
] ]

8
06_text/02_content.ipynb
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@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -491,7 +491,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"So far, we used the term **character** without any further consideration. In this section, we briefly look into what characters are and how they are modeled in software.\n", "So far, we used the term **character** without any further consideration. In this section, we briefly look into what characters are and how they are modeled in software.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"[Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) gives us an idea on how individual **bits** are used to express all types of numbers, from \"simple\" `int` objects to \"complex\" `float` ones. To model characters, another **layer of abstraction** is put on top of whole numbers. So, just as bits are used to express integers, they themselves are used to express characters." "[Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) gives us an idea on how individual **bits** are used to express all types of numbers, from \"simple\" `int` objects to \"complex\" `float` ones. To model characters, another **layer of abstraction** is put on top of whole numbers. So, just as bits are used to express integers, they themselves are used to express characters."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -637,7 +637,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"For example, the digit `5` is mapped to the number `53` in ASCII. The binary representation of `53` is `0b_11_0101` and the least significant four bits, `0101`, mean $5$. Similarly, the letter `\"E\"` is the fifth letter in the alphabet. It is encoded with the number `69` in ASCII, which is `0b_100_0101` in binary. And, the least significant bits, `0_0101`, mean $5$. Analogously, `\"e\"` is encoded with `101` in ASCII, which is `0b_110_0101` in binary. And, the least significant bits, `0_0101`, mean $5$ again. This encoding was chosen mainly because programmers \"in the old days\" needed to implement these encodings \"by hand.\" Python abstracts that logic away from its users.\n", "For example, the digit `5` is mapped to the number `53` in ASCII. The binary representation of `53` is `0b_11_0101` and the least significant four bits, `0101`, mean $5$. Similarly, the letter `\"E\"` is the fifth letter in the alphabet. It is encoded with the number `69` in ASCII, which is `0b_100_0101` in binary. And, the least significant bits, `0_0101`, mean $5$. Analogously, `\"e\"` is encoded with `101` in ASCII, which is `0b_110_0101` in binary. And, the least significant bits, `0_0101`, mean $5$ again. This encoding was chosen mainly because programmers \"in the old days\" needed to implement these encodings \"by hand.\" Python abstracts that logic away from its users.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"This encoding scheme is also the cause for the \"weird\" sorting in the \"*String Comparison*\" section in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/01_content.ipynb#String-Comparison) of this chapter, where `\"apple\"` comes *after* `\"Banana\"`. As `\"a\"` is encoded with `97` and `\"B\"` with `66`, `\"Banana\"` must of course be \"smaller\" than `\"apple\"` when comparison is done in a pairwise fashion of the individual characters." "This encoding scheme is also the cause for the \"weird\" sorting in the \"*String Comparison*\" section in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/01_content.ipynb#String-Comparison) of this chapter, where `\"apple\"` comes *after* `\"Banana\"`. As `\"a\"` is encoded with `97` and `\"B\"` with `66`, `\"Banana\"` must of course be \"smaller\" than `\"apple\"` when comparison is done in a pairwise fashion of the individual characters."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1991,7 +1991,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"A best practice is to *always* specify the `encoding`, especially on computers running on Windows (cf., the talk by Łukasz Langa in the [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/05_resources.ipynb#Unicode)) section at the end of this chapter.\n", "A best practice is to *always* specify the `encoding`, especially on computers running on Windows (cf., the talk by Łukasz Langa in the [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/05_resources.ipynb#Unicode)) section at the end of this chapter.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Below is the first example involving [open() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#open) one last time: It shows how *all* the contents of a text file should be read into one `str` object." "Below is the first example involving [open() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#open) one last time: It shows how *all* the contents of a text file should be read into one `str` object."
] ]

2
06_text/04_review.ipynb
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@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 6.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 6.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

2
06_text/05_resources.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/05_resources.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/05_resources.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

20
07_sequences/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,11 +30,11 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"We studied numbers (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)) and textual data (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb)) first mainly because objects of the presented data types are \"simple.\" That is so for two reasons: First, they are *immutable*, and, as we saw in the \"*Who am I? And how many?*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), mutable objects can quickly become hard to reason about. Second, they are \"flat\" in the sense that they are *not* composed of other objects.\n", "We studied numbers (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)) and textual data (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb)) first mainly because objects of the presented data types are \"simple.\" That is so for two reasons: First, they are *immutable*, and, as we saw in the \"*Who am I? And how many?*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb#Who-am-I?-And-how-many?), mutable objects can quickly become hard to reason about. Second, they are \"flat\" in the sense that they are *not* composed of other objects.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `str` type is a bit of a corner case in this regard. While one could argue that a longer `str` object, for example, `\"text\"`, is composed of individual characters, this is *not* the case in memory as the literal `\"text\"` only creates *one* object (i.e., one \"bag\" of $0$s and $1$s modeling all characters).\n", "The `str` type is a bit of a corner case in this regard. While one could argue that a longer `str` object, for example, `\"text\"`, is composed of individual characters, this is *not* the case in memory as the literal `\"text\"` only creates *one* object (i.e., one \"bag\" of $0$s and $1$s modeling all characters).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"This chapter, [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), and [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/10_arrays/00_content.ipynb) introduce various \"complex\" data types. While some are mutable and others are not, they all share that they are primarily used to \"manage,\" or structure, the memory in a program (i.e., they provide references to other objects). Unsurprisingly, computer scientists refer to the ideas behind these data types as **[data structures <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure)**.\n", "This chapter, [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), and [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/10_arrays/00_content.ipynb) introduce various \"complex\" data types. While some are mutable and others are not, they all share that they are primarily used to \"manage,\" or structure, the memory in a program (i.e., they provide references to other objects). Unsurprisingly, computer scientists refer to the ideas behind these data types as **[data structures <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Data_structure)**.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In this chapter, we focus on data types that model all kinds of sequential data. Examples of such data are [spreadsheets <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet) or [matrices <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29) and [vectors <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_%28mathematics_and_physics%29). These formats share the property that they are composed of smaller units that come in a sequence of, for example, rows/columns/cells or elements/entries." "In this chapter, we focus on data types that model all kinds of sequential data. Examples of such data are [spreadsheets <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spreadsheet) or [matrices <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matrix_%28mathematics%29) and [vectors <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vector_%28mathematics_and_physics%29). These formats share the property that they are composed of smaller units that come in a sequence of, for example, rows/columns/cells or elements/entries."
] ]
@ -58,9 +58,9 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"[Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb#A-\"String\"-of-Characters) already describes the **sequence** properties of `str` objects. In this section, we take a step back and study these properties one by one.\n", "[Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb#A-\"String\"-of-Characters) already describes the **sequence** properties of `str` objects. In this section, we take a step back and study these properties one by one.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) defines a variety of **abstract base classes** (ABCs). We saw ABCs already in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#The-Numerical-Tower), where we use the ones from the [numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) to classify Python's numeric data types according to mathematical ideas. Now, we take the ABCs from the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module to classify the data types in this chapter according to their behavior in various contexts.\n", "The [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) defines a variety of **abstract base classes** (ABCs). We saw ABCs already in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#The-Numerical-Tower), where we use the ones from the [numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) to classify Python's numeric data types according to mathematical ideas. Now, we take the ABCs from the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module to classify the data types in this chapter according to their behavior in various contexts.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As an illustration, consider `numbers` and `text` below, two objects of *different* types." "As an illustration, consider `numbers` and `text` below, two objects of *different* types."
] ]
@ -142,7 +142,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), we referred to such types as *iterables*. That is *not* a proper [English](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/spellcheck/english-german/?q=iterable) word, even if it may sound like one at first sight. Yet, it is an official term in the Python world formalized with the `Iterable` ABC in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module.\n", "In [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), we referred to such types as *iterables*. That is *not* a proper [English](https://dictionary.cambridge.org/spellcheck/english-german/?q=iterable) word, even if it may sound like one at first sight. Yet, it is an official term in the Python world formalized with the `Iterable` ABC in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For the data science practitioner, it is worthwhile to know such terms as, for example, the documentation on the [built-ins <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) uses them extensively: In simple words, any built-in that takes an argument called \"*iterable*\" may be called with *any* object that supports being looped over. Already familiar [built-ins <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) include [enumerate() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#enumerate), [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum), or [zip() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#zip). So, they do *not* require the argument to be of a certain data type (e.g., `list`); instead, any *iterable* type works." "For the data science practitioner, it is worthwhile to know such terms as, for example, the documentation on the [built-ins <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) uses them extensively: In simple words, any built-in that takes an argument called \"*iterable*\" may be called with *any* object that supports being looped over. Already familiar [built-ins <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html) include [enumerate() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#enumerate), [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum), or [zip() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#zip). So, they do *not* require the argument to be of a certain data type (e.g., `list`); instead, any *iterable* type works."
] ]
@ -192,7 +192,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As seen in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#Goose-Typing), we can use ABCs with the built-in [isinstance() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#isinstance) function to check if an object supports a behavior.\n", "As seen in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#Goose-Typing), we can use ABCs with the built-in [isinstance() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#isinstance) function to check if an object supports a behavior.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So, let's \"ask\" Python if it can loop over `numbers` or `text`." "So, let's \"ask\" Python if it can loop over `numbers` or `text`."
] ]
@ -325,7 +325,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Most of the data types in this chapter and [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) and [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/10_arrays/00_content.ipynb) exhibit three [orthogonal <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality) (i.e., \"independent\") behaviors, formalized by ABCs in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module as:\n", "Most of the data types in this chapter and [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) and [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/10_arrays/00_content.ipynb) exhibit three [orthogonal <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Orthogonality) (i.e., \"independent\") behaviors, formalized by ABCs in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module as:\n",
"- `Iterable`: An object may be looped over.\n", "- `Iterable`: An object may be looped over.\n",
"- `Container`: An object \"contains\" references to other objects; a \"whole\" is composed of many \"parts.\"\n", "- `Container`: An object \"contains\" references to other objects; a \"whole\" is composed of many \"parts.\"\n",
"- `Sized`: The number of references to other objects, the \"parts,\" is *finite*.\n", "- `Sized`: The number of references to other objects, the \"parts,\" is *finite*.\n",
@ -902,11 +902,11 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The data types introduced in this chapter are sequences. Nevertheless, we also look at some data types that are neither collections nor sequences but are still useful to model sequential data in practice in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb).\n", "The data types introduced in this chapter are sequences. Nevertheless, we also look at some data types that are neither collections nor sequences but are still useful to model sequential data in practice in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In Python-related documentations, the terms collection and sequence are heavily used, and the data science practitioner should always think of them in terms of the three or four behaviors they exhibit.\n", "In Python-related documentations, the terms collection and sequence are heavily used, and the data science practitioner should always think of them in terms of the three or four behaviors they exhibit.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Data types that are collections but not sequences are covered in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)." "Data types that are collections but not sequences are covered in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
} }
], ],

8
07_sequences/01_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -209,7 +209,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Alternatively, we use the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor to create a `list` object out of any (finite) *iterable* we pass to it as the argument.\n", "Alternatively, we use the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor to create a `list` object out of any (finite) *iterable* we pass to it as the argument.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, we can wrap the [range() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-range) built-in with [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list): As described in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), `range` objects, like `range(1, 13)` below, are iterable and generate `int` objects \"on the fly\" (i.e., one by one). The [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) around it acts like a `for`-loop and **materializes** twelve `int` objects in memory that then become the elements of the newly created `list` object. [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=r%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29%0Al%20%3D%20list%28range%281,%2013%29%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows this difference visually." "For example, we can wrap the [range() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-range) built-in with [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list): As described in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), `range` objects, like `range(1, 13)` below, are iterable and generate `int` objects \"on the fly\" (i.e., one by one). The [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) around it acts like a `for`-loop and **materializes** twelve `int` objects in memory that then become the elements of the newly created `list` object. [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=r%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29%0Al%20%3D%20list%28range%281,%2013%29%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows this difference visually."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1691,7 +1691,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"The `list` type is an essential data structure in any real-world Python application, and many typical `list`-related algorithms from computer science theory are already built into it at the C level (cf., the [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#mutable-sequence-types) or the [tutorial <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-lists) for a full overview; unfortunately, not all methods have direct links). So, understanding and applying the built-in methods of the `list` type not only speeds up the development process but also makes programs significantly faster.\n", "The `list` type is an essential data structure in any real-world Python application, and many typical `list`-related algorithms from computer science theory are already built into it at the C level (cf., the [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#mutable-sequence-types) or the [tutorial <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/tutorial/datastructures.html#more-on-lists) for a full overview; unfortunately, not all methods have direct links). So, understanding and applying the built-in methods of the `list` type not only speeds up the development process but also makes programs significantly faster.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In contrast to the `str` type's methods in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb#String-Methods) (e.g., [.upper() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.upper) or [.lower() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.lower)), the `list` type's methods that mutate an object do so *in place*. That means they *never* create *new* `list` objects and return `None` to indicate that. So, we must *never* assign the return value of `list` methods to the variable holding the list!\n", "In contrast to the `str` type's methods in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb#String-Methods) (e.g., [.upper() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.upper) or [.lower() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#str.lower)), the `list` type's methods that mutate an object do so *in place*. That means they *never* create *new* `list` objects and return `None` to indicate that. So, we must *never* assign the return value of `list` methods to the variable holding the list!\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's look at the following `names` example." "Let's look at the following `names` example."
] ]
@ -2029,7 +2029,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"The [.sort() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort) method and the [sorted() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sorted) function sort the elements in `names` in alphabetical order, forward or backward. However, that does *not* hold in general.\n", "The [.sort() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort) method and the [sorted() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sorted) function sort the elements in `names` in alphabetical order, forward or backward. However, that does *not* hold in general.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We mention above that `list` objects may contain objects of *any* type and even of *mixed* types. Because of that, the sorting is **[delegated <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delegation_(object-oriented_programming))** to the elements in a `list` object. In a way, Python \"asks\" the elements in a `list` object to sort themselves. As `names` contains only `str` objects, they are sorted according the the comparison rules explained in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb#String-Comparison).\n", "We mention above that `list` objects may contain objects of *any* type and even of *mixed* types. Because of that, the sorting is **[delegated <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delegation_(object-oriented_programming))** to the elements in a `list` object. In a way, Python \"asks\" the elements in a `list` object to sort themselves. As `names` contains only `str` objects, they are sorted according the the comparison rules explained in [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb#String-Comparison).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"To customize the sorting, we pass a keyword-only `key` argument to [.sort() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort) or [sorted() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sorted), which must be a `function` object accepting *one* positional argument. Then, the elements in the `list` object are passed to that one by one, and the return values are used as the **sort keys**. The `key` argument is also a popular use case for `lambda` expressions.\n", "To customize the sorting, we pass a keyword-only `key` argument to [.sort() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#list.sort) or [sorted() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sorted), which must be a `function` object accepting *one* positional argument. Then, the elements in the `list` object are passed to that one by one, and the return values are used as the **sort keys**. The `key` argument is also a popular use case for `lambda` expressions.\n",
"\n", "\n",

4
07_sequences/02_exercises_lists.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/02_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/02_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb) of Chapter 7.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb) of Chapter 7.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

10
07_sequences/03_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -172,7 +172,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"The revised `add_xyz()` function below is more natural to reason about as it does *not* modify the passed in `arg` internally. [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=letters%20%3D%20%5B%22a%22,%20%22b%22,%20%22c%22%5D%0A%0Adef%20add_xyz%28arg%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20new_arg%20%3D%20arg%5B%3A%5D%0A%20%20%20%20new_arg.extend%28%5B%22x%22,%20%22y%22,%20%22z%22%5D%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20new_arg%0A%0Aletters_with_xyz%20%3D%20add_xyz%28letters%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows that as well. This approach is following the **[functional programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming)** paradigm that is going through a \"renaissance\" currently. Two essential characteristics of functional programming are that a function *never* changes its inputs and *always* returns the same output given the same inputs.\n", "The revised `add_xyz()` function below is more natural to reason about as it does *not* modify the passed in `arg` internally. [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=letters%20%3D%20%5B%22a%22,%20%22b%22,%20%22c%22%5D%0A%0Adef%20add_xyz%28arg%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20new_arg%20%3D%20arg%5B%3A%5D%0A%20%20%20%20new_arg.extend%28%5B%22x%22,%20%22y%22,%20%22z%22%5D%29%0A%20%20%20%20return%20new_arg%0A%0Aletters_with_xyz%20%3D%20add_xyz%28letters%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows that as well. This approach is following the **[functional programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Functional_programming)** paradigm that is going through a \"renaissance\" currently. Two essential characteristics of functional programming are that a function *never* changes its inputs and *always* returns the same output given the same inputs.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For a beginner, it is probably better to stick to this idea and not change any arguments as the original `add_xyz()` above. However, functions that modify and return the argument passed in are an important aspect of object-oriented programming, as explained in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)." "For a beginner, it is probably better to stick to this idea and not change any arguments as the original `add_xyz()` above. However, functions that modify and return the argument passed in are an important aspect of object-oriented programming, as explained in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1469,7 +1469,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In the \"*List Operations*\" section in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#List-Operations) of this chapter, the `*` symbol **unpacks** the elements of a `list` object into another one. This idea of *iterable unpacking* is built into Python at various places, even *without* the `*` symbol.\n", "In the \"*List Operations*\" section in the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#List-Operations) of this chapter, the `*` symbol **unpacks** the elements of a `list` object into another one. This idea of *iterable unpacking* is built into Python at various places, even *without* the `*` symbol.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, we may write variables on the left-hand side of a `=` statement in a literal `tuple` style. Then, any *finite* iterable on the right-hand side is unpacked. So, `numbers` is unpacked into *twelve* variables below." "For example, we may write variables on the left-hand side of a `=` statement in a literal `tuple` style. Then, any *finite* iterable on the right-hand side is unpacked. So, `numbers` is unpacked into *twelve* variables below."
] ]
@ -2041,7 +2041,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Unpacking allows us to rewrite the iterative `fibonacci()` function from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers-%28revisited%29) in a concise way." "Unpacking allows us to rewrite the iterative `fibonacci()` function from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers-%28revisited%29) in a concise way."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2376,7 +2376,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In the \"*Packing & Unpacking with Functions*\" [exercise <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb), we look at `product()` in more detail.\n", "In the \"*Packing & Unpacking with Functions*\" [exercise <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb), we look at `product()` in more detail.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"While we needed to unpack `one_hundred` above to avoid the semantic error, unpacking an argument in a function call may also be a convenience in general. For example, to print the elements of `one_hundred` in one line, we need to use a `for` statement, until now. With unpacking, we get away *without* a loop." "While we needed to unpack `one_hundred` above to avoid the semantic error, unpacking an argument in a function call may also be a convenience in general. For example, to print the elements of `one_hundred` in one line, we need to use a `for` statement, until now. With unpacking, we get away *without* a loop."
] ]

14
07_sequences/04_exercises_un-packing.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) of Chapter 7.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) of Chapter 7.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"In the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls), we define the following function `product()`. In this exercise, you will improve it by making it more \"user-friendly.\"" "In the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls), we define the following function `product()`. In this exercise, you will improve it by making it more \"user-friendly.\""
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -128,7 +128,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls), we also pass a `list` object, like `one_hundred`, to `product()`, and *no* exception is raised." "In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls), we also pass a `list` object, like `one_hundred`, to `product()`, and *no* exception is raised."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -153,7 +153,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q3**: What is wrong with that? What *kind* of error (cf., [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Formal-vs.-Natural-Languages)) is that conceptually? Describe precisely what happens to the passed in `one_hundred` in every line within `product()`!" "**Q3**: What is wrong with that? What *kind* of error (cf., [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Formal-vs.-Natural-Languages)) is that conceptually? Describe precisely what happens to the passed in `one_hundred` in every line within `product()`!"
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -331,7 +331,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q7**: Rewrite `product()` so that it takes a *keyword-only* argument `start`, defaulting to the above *default* or *start* value, and use `start` internally instead of `result`!\n", "**Q7**: Rewrite `product()` so that it takes a *keyword-only* argument `start`, defaulting to the above *default* or *start* value, and use `start` internally instead of `result`!\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Hint: Remember that a *keyword-only* argument is any parameter specified in a function's header line after the first and only `*` (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Keyword-only-Arguments))." "Hint: Remember that a *keyword-only* argument is any parameter specified in a function's header line after the first and only `*` (cf., [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Keyword-only-Arguments))."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -544,7 +544,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Side Note**: Above, we make `product()` work with a single *collection* type argument instead of a *sequence* type to keep it more generic: For example, we can pass in a `set` object, like `{2, 5, 10}` below, and `product()` continues to work correctly. The `set` type is introducted in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb#The-set-Type), and one essential difference to the `list` type is that objects of type `set` have *no* order regarding their elements. So, even though `[2, 5, 10]` and `{2, 5, 10}` look almost the same, the order implied in the literal notation gets lost in memory!" "**Side Note**: Above, we make `product()` work with a single *collection* type argument instead of a *sequence* type to keep it more generic: For example, we can pass in a `set` object, like `{2, 5, 10}` below, and `product()` continues to work correctly. The `set` type is introducted in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb#The-set-Type), and one essential difference to the `list` type is that objects of type `set` have *no* order regarding their elements. So, even though `[2, 5, 10]` and `{2, 5, 10}` look almost the same, the order implied in the literal notation gets lost in memory!"
] ]
}, },
{ {

6
07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Tuples-are-like-\"Immutable-Lists\") of the chapter, we proposed the idea that `tuple` objects are like \"immutable lists.\" Often, however, we use `tuple` objects to represent a **record** of related **fields**. Then, each element has a *semantic* meaning (i.e., a descriptive name).\n", "In the [third part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Tuples-are-like-\"Immutable-Lists\") of the chapter, we proposed the idea that `tuple` objects are like \"immutable lists.\" Often, however, we use `tuple` objects to represent a **record** of related **fields**. Then, each element has a *semantic* meaning (i.e., a descriptive name).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As an example, think of a spreadsheet with information on students in a course. Each row represents a record and holds all the data associated with an individual student. The columns (e.g., matriculation number, first name, last name) are the fields that may come as *different* data types (e.g., `int` for the matriculation number, `str` for the names).\n", "As an example, think of a spreadsheet with information on students in a course. Each row represents a record and holds all the data associated with an individual student. The columns (e.g., matriculation number, first name, last name) are the fields that may come as *different* data types (e.g., `int` for the matriculation number, `str` for the names).\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -82,7 +82,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"A better way is to create a *custom* data type. While that is covered in depth in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), the [collections <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) provides a [namedtuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple) **factory function** that creates \"simple\" custom data types on top of the standard `tuple` type." "A better way is to create a *custom* data type. While that is covered in depth in [Chapter 11 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), the [collections <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) provides a [namedtuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple) **factory function** that creates \"simple\" custom data types on top of the standard `tuple` type."
] ]
}, },
{ {

4
07_sequences/07_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 7. Some questions regard the [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb); that is indicated with a **\\***.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb), and the [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 7. Some questions regard the [Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb); that is indicated with a **\\***.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q1**: We have seen **containers** and **iterables** before in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables). How do they relate to **sequences**? " "**Q1**: We have seen **containers** and **iterables** before in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables). How do they relate to **sequences**? "
] ]
}, },
{ {

10
08_mfr/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -32,9 +32,9 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"In this chapter, we continue the study of sequential data by looking at memory efficient ways to process the elements in a sequence. That is an important topic for the data science practitioner who must be able to work with data that does *not* fit into a single computer's memory.\n", "In this chapter, we continue the study of sequential data by looking at memory efficient ways to process the elements in a sequence. That is an important topic for the data science practitioner who must be able to work with data that does *not* fit into a single computer's memory.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As shown in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), both the `list` objects `[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]` and `[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]` on the one side and the `range` objects `range(5)` and `range(1, 10, 2)` on the other side allow us to loop over the same numbers. However, the latter two only create *one* `int` object in every iteration while the former two create *all* `int` objects before the loop even starts. In this aspect, we consider `range` objects to be \"rules\" in memory that know how to calculate the numbers *without* calculating them.\n", "As shown in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#Containers-vs.-Iterables), both the `list` objects `[0, 1, 2, 3, 4]` and `[1, 3, 5, 7, 9]` on the one side and the `range` objects `range(5)` and `range(1, 10, 2)` on the other side allow us to loop over the same numbers. However, the latter two only create *one* `int` object in every iteration while the former two create *all* `int` objects before the loop even starts. In this aspect, we consider `range` objects to be \"rules\" in memory that know how to calculate the numbers *without* calculating them.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#The-list-Type), we see how the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor **materializes** the `range(1, 13)` object into the `list` object `[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]`. In other words, we make `range(1, 13)` calculate *all* numbers at once and store them in a `list` object for further processing.\n", "In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#The-list-Type), we see how the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor **materializes** the `range(1, 13)` object into the `list` object `[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12]`. In other words, we make `range(1, 13)` calculate *all* numbers at once and store them in a `list` object for further processing.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In many cases, however, it is not necessary to do that, and, in this chapter, we look at other types of \"rules\" in memory and how we can compose different \"rules\" together to implement bigger computations.\n", "In many cases, however, it is not necessary to do that, and, in this chapter, we look at other types of \"rules\" in memory and how we can compose different \"rules\" together to implement bigger computations.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -779,7 +779,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Using the [map() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#map) and [filter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#filter) built-ins, we can quickly switch the order: Filter first and then transform the remaining elements. This variant equals the \"*A simple Filter*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter). On the contrary, code with `for`-loops and `if` statements is more tedious to adapt. Additionally, `map` and `filter` objects loop \"at the C level\" and are a lot faster because of that. Because of that, experienced Pythonistas tend to *not* use explicit `for`-loops so often." "Using the [map() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#map) and [filter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#filter) built-ins, we can quickly switch the order: Filter first and then transform the remaining elements. This variant equals the \"*A simple Filter*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter). On the contrary, code with `for`-loops and `if` statements is more tedious to adapt. Additionally, `map` and `filter` objects loop \"at the C level\" and are a lot faster because of that. Because of that, experienced Pythonistas tend to *not* use explicit `for`-loops so often."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1129,7 +1129,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"Often, such functions are used *only once* in a program. However, the primary purpose of functions is to *reuse* them. In such cases, it makes more sense to define them \"anonymously\" right at the position where the first argument goes.\n", "Often, such functions are used *only once* in a program. However, the primary purpose of functions is to *reuse* them. In such cases, it makes more sense to define them \"anonymously\" right at the position where the first argument goes.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"As mentioned in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Anonymous-Functions), we use `lambda` expressions to create `function` objects *without* a name referencing them.\n", "As mentioned in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Anonymous-Functions), we use `lambda` expressions to create `function` objects *without* a name referencing them.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So, the above `sum_alt()` function could be rewritten as a `lambda` expression like so ..." "So, the above `sum_alt()` function could be rewritten as a `lambda` expression like so ..."
] ]

22
08_mfr/01_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"After introducing the Map-Filter-Reduce paradigm in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we first see how `list` comprehensions can replace the [map() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#map) and [filter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#filter) built-ins in many cases. Then, we learn how `generator` expressions are like `list` comprehensions *without* using the memory. We end this part with a short discussion of the built-in [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) and [any() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#any) functions." "After introducing the Map-Filter-Reduce paradigm in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we first see how `list` comprehensions can replace the [map() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#map) and [filter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#filter) built-ins in many cases. Then, we learn how `generator` expressions are like `list` comprehensions *without* using the memory. We end this part with a short discussion of the built-in [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) and [any() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#any) functions."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -52,7 +52,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Consider again the original \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter), re-written such that both the mapping and the filtering are done in *one* `for`-loop instead of the *two* above." "Consider again the original \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter), re-written such that both the mapping and the filtering are done in *one* `for`-loop instead of the *two* above."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -156,7 +156,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"A list comprehension may always be used in a place where otherwise a `list` object would work.\n", "A list comprehension may always be used in a place where otherwise a `list` object would work.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, let's rewrite the \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter) in just one line. As a caveat, the code below *materializes* all elements in memory *before* summing them up, and may, therefore, cause a `MemoryError` when executed with a bigger `numbers` list. We see with [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29%0Aresult%20%3D%20sum%28%5B%28n%20**%202%29%20%2B%201%20for%20n%20in%20numbers%20if%20n%20%25%202%20%3D%3D%200%5D%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) how a `list` object exists in memory at step 17 and then \"gets lost\" right after. As the next section shows, this downside may be mitigated." "For example, let's rewrite the \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter) in just one line. As a caveat, the code below *materializes* all elements in memory *before* summing them up, and may, therefore, cause a `MemoryError` when executed with a bigger `numbers` list. We see with [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29%0Aresult%20%3D%20sum%28%5B%28n%20**%202%29%20%2B%201%20for%20n%20in%20numbers%20if%20n%20%25%202%20%3D%3D%200%5D%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) how a `list` object exists in memory at step 17 and then \"gets lost\" right after. As the next section shows, this downside may be mitigated."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -639,7 +639,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"To find the overall product, we *unpack* the list comprehension into the `product()` function from the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" sub-section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls)." "To find the overall product, we *unpack* the list comprehension into the `product()` function from the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" sub-section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -766,7 +766,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Because of the high memory consumption, Pythonistas avoid materialized `list` objects, and, thus, also `list` comprehensions, whenever possible. Instead, they prefer to work with **[`generator` expressions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#generator-expressions)**. Syntactically, they work like list comprehensions except that parentheses, `(` and `)`, replace brackets, `[` and `]`.\n", "Because of the high memory consumption, Pythonistas avoid materialized `list` objects, and, thus, also `list` comprehensions, whenever possible. Instead, they prefer to work with **[`generator` expressions <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/expressions.html#generator-expressions)**. Syntactically, they work like list comprehensions except that parentheses, `(` and `)`, replace brackets, `[` and `]`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's go back to the original \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter) one more time, apply the transformation $y := x^2 + 1$ to all even `numbers`, and sum them up." "Let's go back to the original \"*A simple Filter*\" example from [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb#Example:-A-simple-Filter) one more time, apply the transformation $y := x^2 + 1$ to all even `numbers`, and sum them up."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1050,7 +1050,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"`generator` objects work just like the `map` and `filter` objects in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter. So, with the [next() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#next) function, we can generate elements one by one." "`generator` objects work just like the `map` and `filter` objects in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter. So, with the [next() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#next) function, we can generate elements one by one."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1564,7 +1564,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Now, the first of the two alternative solutions may be more appealing to many readers. In general, many practitioners seem to dislike `lambda` expressions.\n", "Now, the first of the two alternative solutions may be more appealing to many readers. In general, many practitioners seem to dislike `lambda` expressions.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In the first solution, we *unpack* the elements produced by `(1 + (x / y) for x in first for y in second)` into the `product()` function from the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" sub-section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls). However, inside `product()`, the elements are *packed* into `args`, a *materialized* `tuple` object! So, all the memory efficiency gained by using a generator expression is lost! [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=def%20product%28*args%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20result%20%3D%20args%5B0%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20arg%20in%20args%5B1%3A%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20result%20*%3D%20arg%0A%20%20%20%20return%20result%0A%0Afirst%20%3D%20range%2810,%2031,%2010%29%0Asecond%20%3D%20range%2840,%2061,%2010%29%0A%0Aresult%20%3D%20product%28*%281%20%2B%20%28x%20/%20y%29%20for%20x%20in%20first%20for%20y%20in%20second%29%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows how a `tuple` object exists in steps 38-58." "In the first solution, we *unpack* the elements produced by `(1 + (x / y) for x in first for y in second)` into the `product()` function from the \"*Function Definitions & Calls*\" sub-section in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Function-Definitions-&-Calls). However, inside `product()`, the elements are *packed* into `args`, a *materialized* `tuple` object! So, all the memory efficiency gained by using a generator expression is lost! [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=def%20product%28*args%29%3A%0A%20%20%20%20result%20%3D%20args%5B0%5D%0A%20%20%20%20for%20arg%20in%20args%5B1%3A%5D%3A%0A%20%20%20%20%20%20%20%20result%20*%3D%20arg%0A%20%20%20%20return%20result%0A%0Afirst%20%3D%20range%2810,%2031,%2010%29%0Asecond%20%3D%20range%2840,%2061,%2010%29%0A%0Aresult%20%3D%20product%28*%281%20%2B%20%28x%20/%20y%29%20for%20x%20in%20first%20for%20y%20in%20second%29%29&cumulative=false&curstr=0&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false) shows how a `tuple` object exists in steps 38-58."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1656,13 +1656,13 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"With the new concepts in this chapter, let's rewrite the book's introductory \"*Averaging all even Numbers in a List*\" example from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List) such that it efficiently handles a large sequence of numbers. We continue from its latest implementation, the `average_evens()` function in the \"*Keyword-only Arguments*\" section in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Keyword-only-Arguments).\n", "With the new concepts in this chapter, let's rewrite the book's introductory \"*Averaging all even Numbers in a List*\" example from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List) such that it efficiently handles a large sequence of numbers. We continue from its latest implementation, the `average_evens()` function in the \"*Keyword-only Arguments*\" section in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Keyword-only-Arguments).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We assume that `average_evens()` is called with a *finite* and *iterable* object that generates a **stream** of numeric objects that can be cast as `int` objects. After all, the idea of even and odd numbers makes sense only in the context of whole numbers.\n", "We assume that `average_evens()` is called with a *finite* and *iterable* object that generates a **stream** of numeric objects that can be cast as `int` objects. After all, the idea of even and odd numbers makes sense only in the context of whole numbers.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `generator` expression `(round(n) for n in numbers)` implements the type casting, and, when it is evaluated during a function call, *nothing* happens except that a `generator` object is assigned to `integers`. Then, with the [reduce() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.reduce) function from the [functools <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html) module, we *simultaneously* add up *and* count the even numbers with the `generator` object to which the inner `generator` expression `((n, 1) for n in integers if n % 2 == 0)` evaluates to. That `generator` object takes the `integers` generator as its source and produces `tuple` objects consisting of the next *even* number in line and `1`. Two such `tuple` objects are then iteratively passed to the `function` object to which the `lambda` expression evaluates to. `x` represents the total and the count of the even numbers processed so far, while `y`'s first element, `y[0]`, is the next *even* number to be added to the running total. The result of calling [reduce() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.reduce) is again a `tuple` object, namely the final `total` and `count`. Lastly, we calculate the simple average and scale it.\n", "The `generator` expression `(round(n) for n in numbers)` implements the type casting, and, when it is evaluated during a function call, *nothing* happens except that a `generator` object is assigned to `integers`. Then, with the [reduce() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.reduce) function from the [functools <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html) module, we *simultaneously* add up *and* count the even numbers with the `generator` object to which the inner `generator` expression `((n, 1) for n in integers if n % 2 == 0)` evaluates to. That `generator` object takes the `integers` generator as its source and produces `tuple` objects consisting of the next *even* number in line and `1`. Two such `tuple` objects are then iteratively passed to the `function` object to which the `lambda` expression evaluates to. `x` represents the total and the count of the even numbers processed so far, while `y`'s first element, `y[0]`, is the next *even* number to be added to the running total. The result of calling [reduce() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functools.html#functools.reduce) is again a `tuple` object, namely the final `total` and `count`. Lastly, we calculate the simple average and scale it.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In summary, this implementation of `average_evens()` does *not* keep materialized `list` objects internally like its predecessors in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) but processes the elements of the `numbers` argument on a one-by-one basis." "In summary, this implementation of `average_evens()` does *not* keep materialized `list` objects internally like its predecessors in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) but processes the elements of the `numbers` argument on a one-by-one basis."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2040,7 +2040,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"[all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) can be viewed as syntactic sugar replacing a `for`-loop: Internally, [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) implements the *short-circuiting* strategy explained in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Short-Circuiting), and we mimic that by testing for the *opposite* condition in the `if` statement and stopping the `for`-loop early with the `break` statement. In the worst case, if `threshold` were, for example, `150`, we would loop over *all* elements in the `iterable` argument, which must be *finite* for the code to work. So, [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) is a *linear search* in disguise." "[all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) can be viewed as syntactic sugar replacing a `for`-loop: Internally, [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) implements the *short-circuiting* strategy explained in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Short-Circuiting), and we mimic that by testing for the *opposite* condition in the `if` statement and stopping the `for`-loop early with the `break` statement. In the worst case, if `threshold` were, for example, `150`, we would loop over *all* elements in the `iterable` argument, which must be *finite* for the code to work. So, [all() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#all) is a *linear search* in disguise."
] ]
}, },
{ {

8
08_mfr/02_exercises_outliers.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/02_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/02_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 8.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 8.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -335,7 +335,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"We provide a `stream` module with a `data` object that models an *infinite* **stream** of data (cf., the [*stream.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/stream.py) file in the repository)." "We provide a `stream` module with a `data` object that models an *infinite* **stream** of data (cf., the [*stream.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/stream.py) file in the repository)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -574,7 +574,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q10.2**: Just as in `standardized()`, write a `generator` expression that produces z-scores one by one! However, instead of just generating a z-score, the resulting `generator` object should produce `tuple` objects consisting of a \"raw\" number from `data` and its z-score.\n", "**Q10.2**: Just as in `standardized()`, write a `generator` expression that produces z-scores one by one! However, instead of just generating a z-score, the resulting `generator` object should produce `tuple` objects consisting of a \"raw\" number from `data` and its z-score.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Hint: Look at the revisited \"*Averaging Even Numbers*\" example in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List-%28revisited%29) for some inspiration, which also contains a `generator` expression producing `tuple` objects." "Hint: Look at the revisited \"*Averaging Even Numbers*\" example in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#Example:-Averaging-all-even-Numbers-in-a-List-%28revisited%29) for some inspiration, which also contains a `generator` expression producing `tuple` objects."
] ]
}, },
{ {

8
08_mfr/03_exercises_un-packing.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/03_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/03_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 8.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) and [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 8.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q1**: Copy your solution to **Q10** from the \"*Packing & Unpacking with Functions*\" exercise in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb) into the code cell below!" "**Q1**: Copy your solution to **Q10** from the \"*Packing & Unpacking with Functions*\" exercise in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/04_exercises.ipynb) into the code cell below!"
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -152,7 +152,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"**Q4**: Click through the following code cells and observe what they do!\n", "**Q4**: Click through the following code cells and observe what they do!\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The [*stream.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/stream.py) module in the book's repository provides a `make_finite_stream()` function. It is a *factory* function creating objects of type `generator` that we use to model *streaming* data." "The [*stream.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/stream.py) module in the book's repository provides a `make_finite_stream()` function. It is a *factory* function creating objects of type `generator` that we use to model *streaming* data."
] ]
}, },
{ {

10
08_mfr/04_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Similarly to how we classify different *concrete* data types like `list` or `str` by how they behave *abstractly* in a given context in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we also do so for the data types we have introduced in this chapter." "Similarly to how we classify different *concrete* data types like `list` or `str` by how they behave *abstractly* in a given context in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we also do so for the data types we have introduced in this chapter."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -174,7 +174,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Furthermore, we sharpen our definition of an *iterable* from [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences): Just as we define an *iterator* to be any object that supports the [next() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#next) function, we define an *iterable* to be any object that supports the built-in [iter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#iter) function.\n", "Furthermore, we sharpen our definition of an *iterable* from [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences): Just as we define an *iterator* to be any object that supports the [next() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#next) function, we define an *iterable* to be any object that supports the built-in [iter() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#iter) function.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The confused reader may now be wondering how the two concepts relate to each other.\n", "The confused reader may now be wondering how the two concepts relate to each other.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -780,7 +780,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#The-for-Statement), we argue that the `for` statement is syntactic sugar, replacing the `while` statement in many common scenarios. In particular, a `for`-loop saves us two tasks: Managing an index variable *and* obtaining the individual elements by indexing. In this sub-section, we look at a more realistic picture, using the new terminology as well.\n", "In [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#The-for-Statement), we argue that the `for` statement is syntactic sugar, replacing the `while` statement in many common scenarios. In particular, a `for`-loop saves us two tasks: Managing an index variable *and* obtaining the individual elements by indexing. In this sub-section, we look at a more realistic picture, using the new terminology as well.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's print out the elements of a `list` object as the *iterable* being looped over." "Let's print out the elements of a `list` object as the *iterable* being looped over."
] ]
@ -924,7 +924,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Now that we know the concept of an *iterator*, let's compare some of the built-ins introduced in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) in detail and make sure we understand what is going on in memory. This section also serves as a summary of all the concepts in this chapter.\n", "Now that we know the concept of an *iterator*, let's compare some of the built-ins introduced in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) in detail and make sure we understand what is going on in memory. This section also serves as a summary of all the concepts in this chapter.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We use two simple examples, `numbers` and `memoryless`: `numbers` creates *thirteen* objects in memory and `memoryless` only *one* (cf., [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20%5B7,%2011,%208,%205,%203,%2012,%202,%206,%209,%2010,%201,%204%5D%0Amemoryless%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29&cumulative=false&curstr=2&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false))." "We use two simple examples, `numbers` and `memoryless`: `numbers` creates *thirteen* objects in memory and `memoryless` only *one* (cf., [PythonTutor <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](http://pythontutor.com/visualize.html#code=numbers%20%3D%20%5B7,%2011,%208,%205,%203,%2012,%202,%206,%209,%2010,%201,%204%5D%0Amemoryless%20%3D%20range%281,%2013%29&cumulative=false&curstr=2&heapPrimitives=nevernest&mode=display&origin=opt-frontend.js&py=3&rawInputLstJSON=%5B%5D&textReferences=false))."
] ]

2
08_mfr/06_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb), and [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb) part in Chapter 8.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb), and [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb) part in Chapter 8.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

14
09_mappings/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"While [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) focuses on one special kind of *collection* types, namely *sequences*, this chapter introduces two more kinds: **Mappings** and **sets**. Both are presented in this chapter as they share the *same* underlying implementation.\n", "While [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) focuses on one special kind of *collection* types, namely *sequences*, this chapter introduces two more kinds: **Mappings** and **sets**. Both are presented in this chapter as they share the *same* underlying implementation.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `dict` type (cf, [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#dict)) introduced in the next section is an essential part in a data scientist's toolbox for two reasons: First, Python employs `dict` objects basically everywhere internally. Second, after the many concepts involving *sequential* data, *mappings* provide a different perspective on data and enhance our general problem solving skills." "The `dict` type (cf, [documentation <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/stdtypes.html#dict)) introduced in the next section is an essential part in a data scientist's toolbox for two reasons: First, Python employs `dict` objects basically everywhere internally. Second, after the many concepts involving *sequential* data, *mappings* provide a different perspective on data and enhance our general problem solving skills."
] ]
@ -56,7 +56,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"A *mapping* is a one-to-one correspondence from a set of **keys** to a set of **values**. In other words, a *mapping* is a *collection* of **key-value pairs**, also called **items** for short.\n", "A *mapping* is a one-to-one correspondence from a set of **keys** to a set of **values**. In other words, a *mapping* is a *collection* of **key-value pairs**, also called **items** for short.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In the context of mappings, the term *value* has a meaning different from the *value* every object has: In the \"bag\" analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-%28Semantic%29-\"Meaning\"), we describe an object's value to be the semantic meaning of the $0$s and $1$s it contains. Here, the terms *key* and *value* mean the *role* an object takes within a mapping. Both, *keys* and *values*, are *objects* on their own with distinct *values*.\n", "In the context of mappings, the term *value* has a meaning different from the *value* every object has: In the \"bag\" analogy from [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Value-/-%28Semantic%29-\"Meaning\"), we describe an object's value to be the semantic meaning of the $0$s and $1$s it contains. Here, the terms *key* and *value* mean the *role* an object takes within a mapping. Both, *keys* and *values*, are *objects* on their own with distinct *values*.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's continue with an example. To create a `dict` object, we commonly use the literal notation, `{..: .., ..: .., ...}`, and list all the items. `to_words` below maps the `int` objects `0`, `1`, and `2` to their English word equivalents, `\"zero\"`, `\"one\"`, and `\"two\"`, and `from_words` does the opposite. A stylistic side note: Pythonistas often expand `dict` or `list` definitions by writing each item or element on a line on their own. Also, the commas `,` after the respective *last* items, `2: \"two\"` and `\"two\": 2`, are *not* a mistake although they *may* be left out. Besides easier reading, such a style has technical advantages that we do not go into detail about here (cf., [source <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/#when-to-use-trailing-commas))." "Let's continue with an example. To create a `dict` object, we commonly use the literal notation, `{..: .., ..: .., ...}`, and list all the items. `to_words` below maps the `int` objects `0`, `1`, and `2` to their English word equivalents, `\"zero\"`, `\"one\"`, and `\"two\"`, and `from_words` does the opposite. A stylistic side note: Pythonistas often expand `dict` or `list` definitions by writing each item or element on a line on their own. Also, the commas `,` after the respective *last* items, `2: \"two\"` and `\"two\": 2`, are *not* a mistake although they *may* be left out. Besides easier reading, such a style has technical advantages that we do not go into detail about here (cf., [source <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/dev/peps/pep-0008/#when-to-use-trailing-commas))."
] ]
@ -550,7 +550,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/00_content.ipynb#Isn't-C-a-lot-faster?), we argue that a major advantage of using Python is that it takes care of the memory managment for us. In line with that, we have never talked about the C level implementation thus far in the book. However, the `dict` type, among others, exhibits some behaviors that may seem \"weird\" for a beginner. To build some intuition, we describe the underlying implementation details on a conceptual level.\n", "In [Chapter 0 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/00_content.ipynb#Isn't-C-a-lot-faster?), we argue that a major advantage of using Python is that it takes care of the memory managment for us. In line with that, we have never talked about the C level implementation thus far in the book. However, the `dict` type, among others, exhibits some behaviors that may seem \"weird\" for a beginner. To build some intuition, we describe the underlying implementation details on a conceptual level.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The first unintuitive behavior is that we may *not* use a *mutable* object as a key. That results in a `TypeError`." "The first unintuitive behavior is that we may *not* use a *mutable* object as a key. That results in a `TypeError`."
] ]
@ -1176,7 +1176,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we see how a *sequence* is a special kind of a *collection*, and that collections can be described as\n", "In [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), we see how a *sequence* is a special kind of a *collection*, and that collections can be described as\n",
"- *iterable*\n", "- *iterable*\n",
"- *containers*\n", "- *containers*\n",
"- with a *finite* number of elements.\n", "- with a *finite* number of elements.\n",
@ -1245,7 +1245,7 @@
"Also, `dict` objects may be looped over, for example, with the `for` statement. So, in the terminology of the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module, they are `Iterable` objects.\n", "Also, `dict` objects may be looped over, for example, with the `for` statement. So, in the terminology of the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module, they are `Iterable` objects.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Regarding the *iteration order* things are not that easy, and programmers seem to often be confused about this (e.g., this [discussion](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/58413076/why-are-python-dictionaries-not-reversible-for-python3-7)). The confusion usually comes from one of two reasons:\n", "Regarding the *iteration order* things are not that easy, and programmers seem to often be confused about this (e.g., this [discussion](https://stackoverflow.com/questions/58413076/why-are-python-dictionaries-not-reversible-for-python3-7)). The confusion usually comes from one of two reasons:\n",
"1. The internal implementation of the `dict` type has been changed over the last couple of minor release versions, and the communication thereof in the official release notes was done only in a later version. In a nutshell, before Python 3.6, the core developers did not care about the iteration order at all as the goal was to optimize `dict` objects for computational speed, primarily regarding key look-up (cf., the \"Indexing -> Key Look-up\" section below). That meant that looping over the *same* `dict` object several times during its lifetime could have resulted in *different* iteration orders. In Python 3.6, it was discovered that it is possible to make `dict` objects remember the order in that items have been inserted *without* giving up any computational speed or memory (cf., [Raymond Hettinger](https://github.com/rhettinger)'s talk in the [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb#History-of-the-dict-Type) section at the end of the chapter. However, that change was kept an *implementation detail* and *not* made official in the release notes. That was then done in Python 3.7's release notes (cf., [Python 3.7 release notes <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-370/)).\n", "1. The internal implementation of the `dict` type has been changed over the last couple of minor release versions, and the communication thereof in the official release notes was done only in a later version. In a nutshell, before Python 3.6, the core developers did not care about the iteration order at all as the goal was to optimize `dict` objects for computational speed, primarily regarding key look-up (cf., the \"Indexing -> Key Look-up\" section below). That meant that looping over the *same* `dict` object several times during its lifetime could have resulted in *different* iteration orders. In Python 3.6, it was discovered that it is possible to make `dict` objects remember the order in that items have been inserted *without* giving up any computational speed or memory (cf., [Raymond Hettinger](https://github.com/rhettinger)'s talk in the [Further Resources <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb#History-of-the-dict-Type) section at the end of the chapter. However, that change was kept an *implementation detail* and *not* made official in the release notes. That was then done in Python 3.7's release notes (cf., [Python 3.7 release notes <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-370/)).\n",
"2. To make order an official part of a data type, it must adhere to the `Reversible` ABC in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module and support the [reversed() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#reversed) built-in. Even though the items' order inside a `dict` is remembered for Python 3.6 and 3.7, `dict` objects are *not* `Reversible`. That was then changed in Python 3.8, but again *not* officially communicated (cf., [Python 3.8 release notes](https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/)).\n", "2. To make order an official part of a data type, it must adhere to the `Reversible` ABC in the [collections.abc <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.abc.html) module and support the [reversed() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#reversed) built-in. Even though the items' order inside a `dict` is remembered for Python 3.6 and 3.7, `dict` objects are *not* `Reversible`. That was then changed in Python 3.8, but again *not* officially communicated (cf., [Python 3.8 release notes](https://www.python.org/downloads/release/python-380/)).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In summary, we can say that depending on the exact Python version a `dict` object *may* remember the **insertion order** of its items.\n", "In summary, we can say that depending on the exact Python version a `dict` object *may* remember the **insertion order** of its items.\n",
@ -3541,7 +3541,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Analogous to `list` comprehensions in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb#list-Comprehensions), `dict` comprehensions are a concise literal notation to derive new `dict` objects out of existing ones.\n", "Analogous to `list` comprehensions in [Chapter 8 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb#list-Comprehensions), `dict` comprehensions are a concise literal notation to derive new `dict` objects out of existing ones.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, let's derive `from_words` out of `to_words` below by swapping the keys and values." "For example, let's derive `from_words` out of `to_words` below by swapping the keys and values."
] ]

4
09_mappings/01_exercises_nested-data.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 9.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 9.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

10
09_mappings/02_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -30,7 +30,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"After introducing the `dict` type in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we first look at an extension of the packing and unpacking syntax that involves `dict` objects. Then, we see how mappings can help us write computationally more efficient implementations to recursive solutions of problems as introduced in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Recursion). In a way, this second part of the chapter \"finishes\" Chapter 4." "After introducing the `dict` type in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) of this chapter, we first look at an extension of the packing and unpacking syntax that involves `dict` objects. Then, we see how mappings can help us write computationally more efficient implementations to recursive solutions of problems as introduced in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Recursion). In a way, this second part of the chapter \"finishes\" Chapter 4."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -52,7 +52,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Just as a single `*` symbol is used for packing and unpacking iterables in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Packing-&-Unpacking), a double `**` symbol implements packing and unpacking for mappings.\n", "Just as a single `*` symbol is used for packing and unpacking iterables in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Packing-&-Unpacking), a double `**` symbol implements packing and unpacking for mappings.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's say we have `to_words` and `more_words` as below and want to merge the items together into a *new* `dict` object." "Let's say we have `to_words` and `more_words` as below and want to merge the items together into a *new* `dict` object."
] ]
@ -608,7 +608,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The *recursive* implementation of the [Fibonacci numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number) in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers) takes long to compute for large Fibonacci numbers. For easier comparison, we show the old `fibonacci()` version here again." "The *recursive* implementation of the [Fibonacci numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fibonacci_number) in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers) takes long to compute for large Fibonacci numbers. For easier comparison, we show the old `fibonacci()` version here again."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -831,7 +831,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"When we follow the flow of execution closely, we realize that the intermediate results represented by the left-most path in the graph above are calculated first. `fibonacci(1)`, the left-most leaf node $F(1)$, is the first base case reached, followed immediately by `fibonacci(0)`. From that moment onwards, the flow of execution moves back up the left-most path while adding together the two corresponding child nodes. Effectively, this mirrors the *iterative* implementation in that the order of all computational steps are *identical* (cf., the \"*Hard at first Glance*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--(revisited))).\n", "When we follow the flow of execution closely, we realize that the intermediate results represented by the left-most path in the graph above are calculated first. `fibonacci(1)`, the left-most leaf node $F(1)$, is the first base case reached, followed immediately by `fibonacci(0)`. From that moment onwards, the flow of execution moves back up the left-most path while adding together the two corresponding child nodes. Effectively, this mirrors the *iterative* implementation in that the order of all computational steps are *identical* (cf., the \"*Hard at first Glance*\" example in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--(revisited))).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We added a keyword-only argument `debug` that allows the caller to print out a message every time a `i` was *not* in the `memo`." "We added a keyword-only argument `debug` that allows the caller to print out a message every time a `i` was *not* in the `memo`."
] ]

8
09_mappings/03_exercises_fibonacci.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/03_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/03_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb) of Chapter 9.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [second part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb) of Chapter 9.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]
@ -38,7 +38,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"It is considered *bad practice* to make a function and thereby its correctness dependent on a program's *global state*: For example, in the \"*Easy at second Glance: Fibonacci Numbers*\" section in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--%28revisited%29), we use a global `memo` to store the Fibonacci numbers that have already been calculated.\n", "It is considered *bad practice* to make a function and thereby its correctness dependent on a program's *global state*: For example, in the \"*Easy at second Glance: Fibonacci Numbers*\" section in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--%28revisited%29), we use a global `memo` to store the Fibonacci numbers that have already been calculated.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"That `memo` dictionary could be \"manipulated.\" More often than not, such things happen by accident: Imagine we wrote two independent recursive functions that both rely on memoization to solve different problems, and, unintentionally, we made both work with the *same* global `memo`. As a result, we would observe \"random\" bugs depending on the order in which we executed these functions. Such bugs are hard to track down in practice.\n", "That `memo` dictionary could be \"manipulated.\" More often than not, such things happen by accident: Imagine we wrote two independent recursive functions that both rely on memoization to solve different problems, and, unintentionally, we made both work with the *same* global `memo`. As a result, we would observe \"random\" bugs depending on the order in which we executed these functions. Such bugs are hard to track down in practice.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -185,7 +185,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The runtime of `fibonacci()` is now stable: There is no message that \"an intermediate result is being cached\" as in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--%28revisited%29).\n", "The runtime of `fibonacci()` is now stable: There is no message that \"an intermediate result is being cached\" as in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--%28revisited%29).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"**Q7**: Execute the following code cells a couple of times to observe that!" "**Q7**: Execute the following code cells a couple of times to observe that!"
] ]

4
09_mappings/04_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1407,7 +1407,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Python provides a literal notation for `set` comprehensions that works exactly like the one for `dict` comprehensions described in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb#dict-Comprehensions) of this chapter except that they use a single loop variable instead of a key-value pair.\n", "Python provides a literal notation for `set` comprehensions that works exactly like the one for `dict` comprehensions described in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb#dict-Comprehensions) of this chapter except that they use a single loop variable instead of a key-value pair.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, let's create a new `set` object that consists of the squares of all the elements of `numbers`." "For example, let's create a new `set` object that consists of the squares of all the elements of `numbers`."
] ]

2
09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

4
09_mappings/07_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb), and [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 9.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb), and [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 9.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]
@ -99,7 +99,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"**Q6**: **Memoization** is an essential concept to know to solve problems in the real world. Together with the idea of **recursion**, it enables us to solve problems in a \"backwards\" fashion *effectively*.\n", "**Q6**: **Memoization** is an essential concept to know to solve problems in the real world. Together with the idea of **recursion**, it enables us to solve problems in a \"backwards\" fashion *effectively*.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Compare the **recursive** formulation of `fibonacci()` in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--(revisited)), the \"*Easy at second Glance*\" example, with the **iterative** version in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers-%28revisited%29), the \"*Hard at first Glance*\" example!\n", "Compare the **recursive** formulation of `fibonacci()` in [Chapter 9 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb#\"Easy-at-second-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers--(revisited)), the \"*Easy at second Glance*\" example, with the **iterative** version in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb#\"Hard-at-first-Glance\"-Example:-Fibonacci-Numbers-%28revisited%29), the \"*Hard at first Glance*\" example!\n",
"\n", "\n",
"How are they similar and how do they differ? Also consider how the flow of execution behaves when the functions are being executed." "How are they similar and how do they differ? Also consider how the flow of execution behaves when the functions are being executed."
] ]

2
09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {

12
11_classes/00_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -34,7 +34,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"Classes and instances follow the **[object-oriented programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming)** (OOP) paradigm where a *large program* is broken down into many *small components* (i.e., the objects) that *reuse* code. This way, a program that is too big for a programmer to fully comprehend as a whole becomes maintainable via its easier to understand individual pieces.\n", "Classes and instances follow the **[object-oriented programming <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Object-oriented_programming)** (OOP) paradigm where a *large program* is broken down into many *small components* (i.e., the objects) that *reuse* code. This way, a program that is too big for a programmer to fully comprehend as a whole becomes maintainable via its easier to understand individual pieces.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Often, we see the terminology \"classes & objects\" used instead of \"classes & instances\" in Python related texts. In this book, we are more precise as *both* classes and instances are objects as specified already in the \"*Objects vs. Types vs. Values*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values)." "Often, we see the terminology \"classes & objects\" used instead of \"classes & instances\" in Python related texts. In this book, we are more precise as *both* classes and instances are objects as specified already in the \"*Objects vs. Types vs. Values*\" section in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Objects-vs.-Types-vs.-Values)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -56,7 +56,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Neither core Python nor the standard library offer an implementation of common [linear algebra <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra) functionalities. While we introduce the popular third-party library [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) in [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/10_arrarys/00_content.ipynb) as the de-facto standard for that and recommend to use it in real-life projects, we show how one could use Python's object-oriented language features to implement common matrix and vector operations throughout this chapter. Once we have achieved that, we compare our own library with [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/).\n", "Neither core Python nor the standard library offer an implementation of common [linear algebra <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linear_algebra) functionalities. While we introduce the popular third-party library [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/) in [Chapter 10 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/10_arrarys/00_content.ipynb) as the de-facto standard for that and recommend to use it in real-life projects, we show how one could use Python's object-oriented language features to implement common matrix and vector operations throughout this chapter. Once we have achieved that, we compare our own library with [numpy](http://www.numpy.org/).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Without classes, we could model a vector, for example, with a `tuple` or a `list` object, depending on if we want it to be mutable or not.\n", "Without classes, we could model a vector, for example, with a `tuple` or a `list` object, depending on if we want it to be mutable or not.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -326,7 +326,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Its type is `type` indicating that it represents a user-defined data type and it evaluates to its fully qualified name (i.e., `__main__` as it is defined in this Jupyter notebook).\n", "Its type is `type` indicating that it represents a user-defined data type and it evaluates to its fully qualified name (i.e., `__main__` as it is defined in this Jupyter notebook).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We have seen the type `type` before in the \"*Constructors*\" section in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Constructors) and also in the \"*The `namedtuple` Type*\" section in [Chapter 7's Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb#The-namedtuple-Type). In the latter case, we could also use a `Point` class but the [namedtuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple) function from the [collections <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) is a convenient shortcut to create custom data types that can be derived out of a plain `tuple`.\n", "We have seen the type `type` before in the \"*Constructors*\" section in [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb#Constructors) and also in the \"*The `namedtuple` Type*\" section in [Chapter 7's Appendix <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb#The-namedtuple-Type). In the latter case, we could also use a `Point` class but the [namedtuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html#collections.namedtuple) function from the [collections <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/collections.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) is a convenient shortcut to create custom data types that can be derived out of a plain `tuple`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In all examples, if an object's type is `type`, we can simply view it as a blueprint for a \"family\" of objects." "In all examples, if an object's type is `type`, we can simply view it as a blueprint for a \"family\" of objects."
] ]
@ -1294,7 +1294,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"From a theoretical point of view, the text representation provided by `.__repr__()` contains all the information (i.e., the $0$s and $1$s in memory) that is needed to model something in a computer. In a way, it is a natural extension from the binary (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Binary-Representations)), hexadecimal (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Hexadecimal-Representations)), and `bytes` (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/02_content.ipynb#The-bytes-Type)) representations of information. After all, just like Unicode characters are encoded in `bytes`, the more \"complex\" objects in this chapter are encoded in Unicode characters via their text representations." "From a theoretical point of view, the text representation provided by `.__repr__()` contains all the information (i.e., the $0$s and $1$s in memory) that is needed to model something in a computer. In a way, it is a natural extension from the binary (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Binary-Representations)), hexadecimal (cf., [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb#Hexadecimal-Representations)), and `bytes` (cf., [Chapter 6 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/02_content.ipynb#The-bytes-Type)) representations of information. After all, just like Unicode characters are encoded in `bytes`, the more \"complex\" objects in this chapter are encoded in Unicode characters via their text representations."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1649,7 +1649,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"An example of an instance method from linear algebra is the `.transpose()` method below that switches the rows and columns of an *existing* `Matrix` instance and returns a *new* `Matrix` instance based off that. It is implemented by passing the *iterator* created with the [zip() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#zip) built-in as the `data` argument to the `Matrix` constructor: The expression `zip(*self._entries)` may be a bit hard to understand because of the involved unpacking but simply flips a `Matrix`'s rows and columns. The built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor within the `.__init__()` method then materializes the iterator into the `._entries` attribute. Without a concrete `Matrix`'s rows and columns, `.transpose()` does not make sense, conceptually speaking.\n", "An example of an instance method from linear algebra is the `.transpose()` method below that switches the rows and columns of an *existing* `Matrix` instance and returns a *new* `Matrix` instance based off that. It is implemented by passing the *iterator* created with the [zip() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#zip) built-in as the `data` argument to the `Matrix` constructor: The expression `zip(*self._entries)` may be a bit hard to understand because of the involved unpacking but simply flips a `Matrix`'s rows and columns. The built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor within the `.__init__()` method then materializes the iterator into the `._entries` attribute. Without a concrete `Matrix`'s rows and columns, `.transpose()` does not make sense, conceptually speaking.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Also, we see that it is ok to reference a class from within one of its methods. While this seems trivial to some readers, others may find this confusing. The final versions of the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes in the [fourth part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/04_content.ipynb#The-final-Vector-and-Matrix-Classes) of this chapter show how this \"hard coded\" redundancy can be avoided." "Also, we see that it is ok to reference a class from within one of its methods. While this seems trivial to some readers, others may find this confusing. The final versions of the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes in the [fourth part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/04_content.ipynb#The-final-Vector-and-Matrix-Classes) of this chapter show how this \"hard coded\" redundancy can be avoided."
] ]
}, },
{ {

4
11_classes/01_exercises_tsp.ipynb
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/01_exercises.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Run All*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *after* finishing the exercises to ensure that your solution runs top to bottom *without* any errors. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/01_exercises.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -18,7 +18,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 11.\n", "The exercises below assume that you have read the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) of Chapter 11.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas." "The `...`'s in the code cells indicate where you need to fill in code snippets. The number of `...`'s within a code cell give you a rough idea of how many lines of code are needed to solve the task. You should not need to create any additional code cells for your final solution. However, you may want to use temporary code cells to try out some ideas."
] ]

12
11_classes/02_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/02_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/02_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -52,7 +52,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"As discussed in detail in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), a sequence is any finite and iterable container type with a *predictable* order of its elements such that we can label each element with an index in the range `0 <= index < len(sequence)`.\n", "As discussed in detail in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb#Collections-vs.-Sequences), a sequence is any finite and iterable container type with a *predictable* order of its elements such that we can label each element with an index in the range `0 <= index < len(sequence)`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"To make `Vector` and `Matrix` instances emulate sequences, we implement the `.__len__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__)) and `.__getitem__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__)) methods. While the former returns the total number of elements in a container and is automatically invoked on any object passed to the built-in [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) function, the latter is invoked by the interpreter behind the scenes when we use the indexing operator `[]`.\n", "To make `Vector` and `Matrix` instances emulate sequences, we implement the `.__len__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__len__)) and `.__getitem__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__getitem__)) methods. While the former returns the total number of elements in a container and is automatically invoked on any object passed to the built-in [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len) function, the latter is invoked by the interpreter behind the scenes when we use the indexing operator `[]`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -714,7 +714,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"The collection of all such behaviors a programming language offers is commonly referred to as its **object model**. In Python, the term **data model** is used instead and all possible behaviors are documented in the [language reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html), in particular, in the section on special methods. We can think of the data model as the collection of all the behaviors we can make our user-defined data types follow. Pythonistas also use the term **protocol** instead of behavior, for example, we may say that \"the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes follow the sequence protocol.\"\n", "The collection of all such behaviors a programming language offers is commonly referred to as its **object model**. In Python, the term **data model** is used instead and all possible behaviors are documented in the [language reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html), in particular, in the section on special methods. We can think of the data model as the collection of all the behaviors we can make our user-defined data types follow. Pythonistas also use the term **protocol** instead of behavior, for example, we may say that \"the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes follow the sequence protocol.\"\n",
"\n", "\n",
"So, merely defining the *two* `.__len__()` and `.__getitem__()` methods is enough to make instances of any user-defined type behave like the built-in sequences in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb). Yet, there we defined sequences as all objects having the *four* properties of being finite, iterable, and ordered container types. And, these properties correspond to special methods by the names of `.__len__()`, `.__iter__()`, `.__reversed__()`, and `.__contains__()` as we see in the next section. Thus, Python \"magically\" knows how to derive the logic for the `.__iter__()`, `.__reversed__()`, and `.__contains__()` methods from the combination of the `.__len__()` and `.__getitem__()` methods. In general, while some special methods are related, others are not. Understanding these relationships means understanding the Python data model and vice versa. That is what every aspiring data scientist should aim for.\n", "So, merely defining the *two* `.__len__()` and `.__getitem__()` methods is enough to make instances of any user-defined type behave like the built-in sequences in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb). Yet, there we defined sequences as all objects having the *four* properties of being finite, iterable, and ordered container types. And, these properties correspond to special methods by the names of `.__len__()`, `.__iter__()`, `.__reversed__()`, and `.__contains__()` as we see in the next section. Thus, Python \"magically\" knows how to derive the logic for the `.__iter__()`, `.__reversed__()`, and `.__contains__()` methods from the combination of the `.__len__()` and `.__getitem__()` methods. In general, while some special methods are related, others are not. Understanding these relationships means understanding the Python data model and vice versa. That is what every aspiring data scientist should aim for.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"On the contrary, we could also look at special methods individually. Whereas `.__len__()` is invoked on the object passed to [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len), Python \"translates\" the indexing operator applied on any name like `a[i]`, for example, into the method invocation `a.__getitem__(i)`. So, in both cases, the special methods are executed according to a deterministic rule of the language. In that sense, they act as some sort of syntactic sugar. Thus, they even work if only one of them is defined. For example, without `.__len__()`, iteration with a `for`-loop still works but only in forward direction." "On the contrary, we could also look at special methods individually. Whereas `.__len__()` is invoked on the object passed to [len() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#len), Python \"translates\" the indexing operator applied on any name like `a[i]`, for example, into the method invocation `a.__getitem__(i)`. So, in both cases, the special methods are executed according to a deterministic rule of the language. In that sense, they act as some sort of syntactic sugar. Thus, they even work if only one of them is defined. For example, without `.__len__()`, iteration with a `for`-loop still works but only in forward direction."
] ]
@ -1047,7 +1047,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"In the above implementations, the instance attribute `._entries` on a `Vector` or `Matrix` instance references either a `list` or a `list` of row `list`s , which is by the convention of the leading underscore `_` an implementation detail. If users of our classes adhere to this convention, `Vector` and `Matrix` instances can be regarded as *immutable*.\n", "In the above implementations, the instance attribute `._entries` on a `Vector` or `Matrix` instance references either a `list` or a `list` of row `list`s , which is by the convention of the leading underscore `_` an implementation detail. If users of our classes adhere to this convention, `Vector` and `Matrix` instances can be regarded as *immutable*.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"In line with the implied immutability, we implemented the `.transpose()` method such that it returns a *new* `Matrix` instance. Instead, we could make the method change the internal `self._entries` attribute *in place* as we do in the next example. To indicate this mutation to the user of the `Matrix` class clearly, the revised `.transpose()` method returns `None`. That mirrors, for example, how the mutating methods of the built-in `list` type behave (cf., [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#List-Methods)).\n", "In line with the implied immutability, we implemented the `.transpose()` method such that it returns a *new* `Matrix` instance. Instead, we could make the method change the internal `self._entries` attribute *in place* as we do in the next example. To indicate this mutation to the user of the `Matrix` class clearly, the revised `.transpose()` method returns `None`. That mirrors, for example, how the mutating methods of the built-in `list` type behave (cf., [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb#List-Methods)).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Such decisions are better made consciously when designing a custom data type. The main trade-off is that immutable data types are typically easier to reason about when reading code whereas mutable data types tend to be more memory efficient and make programs faster as less copying operations take place in memory. However, this trade-off only becomes critical when we deal with big amounts of data." "Such decisions are better made consciously when designing a custom data type. The main trade-off is that immutable data types are typically easier to reason about when reading code whereas mutable data types tend to be more memory efficient and make programs faster as less copying operations take place in memory. However, this trade-off only becomes critical when we deal with big amounts of data."
] ]
@ -1577,7 +1577,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"After this discussion of mutable `Vector` and `Matrix` classes, we continue with immutable implementations in the rest of this chapter. To lower the chance that we accidently design parts of our classes to be mutable, we replace the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor with [tuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-tuple) in the `.__init__()` methods. As we learn in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Tuples-are-like-%22Immutable-Lists%22), `tuple`s are like immutable `list`s." "After this discussion of mutable `Vector` and `Matrix` classes, we continue with immutable implementations in the rest of this chapter. To lower the chance that we accidently design parts of our classes to be mutable, we replace the built-in [list() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-list) constructor with [tuple() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#func-tuple) in the `.__init__()` methods. As we learn in [Chapter 7 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb#Tuples-are-like-%22Immutable-Lists%22), `tuple`s are like immutable `list`s."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1599,7 +1599,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"A function is considered **polymorphic** if it can work with *different* data types. The main advantage is reuse of the function's code. Polymorphism goes hand in hand with the concept of [duck typing <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_typing), first mentioned in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Duck-Typing) in the context of input validation.\n", "A function is considered **polymorphic** if it can work with *different* data types. The main advantage is reuse of the function's code. Polymorphism goes hand in hand with the concept of [duck typing <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Duck_typing), first mentioned in [Chapter 4 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb#Duck-Typing) in the context of input validation.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We know polymorphic functions already: The built-in [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum) function is a trivial example that works with all kinds of `iterable` arguments." "We know polymorphic functions already: The built-in [sum() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#sum) function is a trivial example that works with all kinds of `iterable` arguments."
] ]

10
11_classes/03_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/03_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/03_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -446,7 +446,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"By implementing special methods such as `.__add__()`, `.__sub__()`, `.__mul__()`, and some others, we can make user-defined data types emulate how numeric types operate with each other (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#emulating-numeric-types)): Then, `Vector` and `Matrix` instances can be added together, subtracted from one another, or be multiplied together. We use them to implement the arithmetic rules from linear algebra.\n", "By implementing special methods such as `.__add__()`, `.__sub__()`, `.__mul__()`, and some others, we can make user-defined data types emulate how numeric types operate with each other (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#emulating-numeric-types)): Then, `Vector` and `Matrix` instances can be added together, subtracted from one another, or be multiplied together. We use them to implement the arithmetic rules from linear algebra.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The OOP concept behind this is **[operator overloading <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_overloading)** as first mentioned in the context of `str` concatenation in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Operator-Overloading)." "The OOP concept behind this is **[operator overloading <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operator_overloading)** as first mentioned in the context of `str` concatenation in [Chapter 1 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb#Operator-Overloading)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -599,7 +599,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"To check if `other` is a scalar, we need to specify what data type constitutes a scalar. We use a goose typing strategy as explained in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#Goose-Typing): Any object that behaves like a `numbers.Number` from the [numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) is considered a scalar.\n", "To check if `other` is a scalar, we need to specify what data type constitutes a scalar. We use a goose typing strategy as explained in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb#Goose-Typing): Any object that behaves like a `numbers.Number` from the [numbers <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/numbers.html) module in the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html) is considered a scalar.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For example, the integer `1` is an instance of the built-in `int` type. At the same time, [isinstance() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#isinstance) also confirms that it is a `numbers.Number` in the abstract sense." "For example, the integer `1` is an instance of the built-in `int` type. At the same time, [isinstance() <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/functions.html#isinstance) also confirms that it is a `numbers.Number` in the abstract sense."
] ]
@ -1715,7 +1715,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"We implement the `.__eq__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__)) method to control how the comparison operator `==` is carried out. For brevity, we show this only for the `Vector` class. The `.__eq__()` method exits early as soon as the first pair of entries does not match. Also, for reasons discussed in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb#Imprecision), we compare the absolute difference of two corresponding entries to a very small `zero_threshold` that is stored as a class attribute shared among all `Vector` instances. If the `Vector`s differ in their numbers of entries, we fail loudly and raise a `ValueError`." "We implement the `.__eq__()` (cf., [reference <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/reference/datamodel.html#object.__eq__)) method to control how the comparison operator `==` is carried out. For brevity, we show this only for the `Vector` class. The `.__eq__()` method exits early as soon as the first pair of entries does not match. Also, for reasons discussed in [Chapter 5 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb#Imprecision), we compare the absolute difference of two corresponding entries to a very small `zero_threshold` that is stored as a class attribute shared among all `Vector` instances. If the `Vector`s differ in their numbers of entries, we fail loudly and raise a `ValueError`."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2239,7 +2239,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Only an all `0`s `Vector` is `False` in a boolean context. As mentioned in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Truthy-vs.-Falsy), commonly we view an *empty* sequence as falsy; however, as we do not allow `Vector`s without any entries, we choose the all `0`s alternative. In that regard, the `Vector` class does not behave like the built-in sequence types." "Only an all `0`s `Vector` is `False` in a boolean context. As mentioned in [Chapter 3 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb#Truthy-vs.-Falsy), commonly we view an *empty* sequence as falsy; however, as we do not allow `Vector`s without any entries, we choose the all `0`s alternative. In that regard, the `Vector` class does not behave like the built-in sequence types."
] ]
}, },
{ {

34
11_classes/04_content.ipynb
View file

@ -8,7 +8,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/04_content.ipynb)." "**Note**: Click on \"*Kernel*\" > \"*Restart Kernel and Clear All Outputs*\" in [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) *before* reading this notebook to reset its output. If you cannot run this file on your machine, you may want to open it [in the cloud <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_mb.png\">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/04_content.ipynb)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -52,13 +52,13 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"In [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/02_content.ipynb#Local-Modules-and-Packages), we introduce the concept of a Python module that is imported with the `import` statement. Essentially, a **module** is a single plain text \\*.py file on disk that contains Python code (e.g., [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/sample_module.py) in [Chapter 2's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/02_functions)).\n", "In [Chapter 2 <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/02_content.ipynb#Local-Modules-and-Packages), we introduce the concept of a Python module that is imported with the `import` statement. Essentially, a **module** is a single plain text \\*.py file on disk that contains Python code (e.g., [*sample_module.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/sample_module.py) in [Chapter 2's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/02_functions)).\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Conceptually, a **package** is a generalization of a module whose code is split across several \\*.py to achieve a better organization of the individual parts. The \\*.py files are stored within a folder (e.g., [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/11_classes/sample_package) in [Chapter 11's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/11_classes)). In addition to that, a \"*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py*\" file that may be empty must be put inside the folder. The latter is what the Python interpreter looks for to decide if a folder is a package or not.\n", "Conceptually, a **package** is a generalization of a module whose code is split across several \\*.py to achieve a better organization of the individual parts. The \\*.py files are stored within a folder (e.g., [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/11_classes/sample_package) in [Chapter 11's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/11_classes)). In addition to that, a \"*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py*\" file that may be empty must be put inside the folder. The latter is what the Python interpreter looks for to decide if a folder is a package or not.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's look at an example with the final version of our `Vector` and `Matrix` classes.\n", "Let's look at an example with the final version of our `Vector` and `Matrix` classes.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"`!pwd` shows the location of this Jupyter notebook on the computer you are running [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) on: It is the local equivalent of [Chapter 11's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/11_classes) in this book's [GitHub repository <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python)." "`!pwd` shows the location of this Jupyter notebook on the computer you are running [JupyterLab](https://jupyterlab.readthedocs.io/en/stable/) on: It is the local equivalent of [Chapter 11's folder <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/11_classes) in this book's [GitHub repository <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python)."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -90,7 +90,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"`!ls` lists all the files and folders in the current location: These are Chapter 11's Jupyter notebooks (i.e., the \\*.ipynb files) and the [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/11_classes/sample_package) folder. " "`!ls` lists all the files and folders in the current location: These are Chapter 11's Jupyter notebooks (i.e., the \\*.ipynb files) and the [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/11_classes/sample_package) folder. "
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -155,11 +155,11 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The package is organized such that the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) modules each define just one class, `Matrix` and `Vector`. That is intentional as both classes consist of several hundred lines of code and comments.\n", "The package is organized such that the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) modules each define just one class, `Matrix` and `Vector`. That is intentional as both classes consist of several hundred lines of code and comments.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"The [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module contains code that is shared by both classes. Such code snippets are commonly called \"utilities\" or \"helpers,\" which explains the module's name.\n", "The [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module contains code that is shared by both classes. Such code snippets are commonly called \"utilities\" or \"helpers,\" which explains the module's name.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Finally, the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file contains mostly meta information and defines what objects should be importable from the package's top level.\n", "Finally, the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file contains mostly meta information and defines what objects should be importable from the package's top level.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"With the `import` statement, we can import the entire package just as we would import a module from the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html)." "With the `import` statement, we can import the entire package just as we would import a module from the [standard library <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_py.png\">](https://docs.python.org/3/library/index.html)."
] ]
@ -185,7 +185,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The above cell runs the code in the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file from top to bottom, which in turn runs the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py), [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py), and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) modules (cf., look at the `import` statements in the four \\*.py files to get the idea). As both [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) depend on each other (i.e., the `Matrix` class needs the `Vector` class to work and vice versa), understanding the order in that the modules are executed is not trivial. Without going into detail, we mention that Python guarantees that each \\*.py file is run only once and figures out the order on its own. If Python is unable to do that, for example, due to unresolvable cirular imports, it aborts with an `ImportError`.\n", "The above cell runs the code in the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file from top to bottom, which in turn runs the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py), [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py), and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) modules (cf., look at the `import` statements in the four \\*.py files to get the idea). As both [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) depend on each other (i.e., the `Matrix` class needs the `Vector` class to work and vice versa), understanding the order in that the modules are executed is not trivial. Without going into detail, we mention that Python guarantees that each \\*.py file is run only once and figures out the order on its own. If Python is unable to do that, for example, due to unresolvable cirular imports, it aborts with an `ImportError`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Below, `pkg` is an object of type `module` ..." "Below, `pkg` is an object of type `module` ..."
] ]
@ -297,7 +297,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The package's meta information and documentation are automatically parsed from the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file." "The package's meta information and documentation are automatically parsed from the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1012,7 +1012,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"A common practice by package authors is to put all the objects on the package's top level that they want the package users to work with directly. That is achieved via the `import` statements in the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file.\n", "A common practice by package authors is to put all the objects on the package's top level that they want the package users to work with directly. That is achieved via the `import` statements in the [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"However, users can always reach into a package and work with its internals.\n", "However, users can always reach into a package and work with its internals.\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1075,7 +1075,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Also, let's import the [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module with the `norm()` function into the global scope. As this function is integrated into the `Vector.__abs__()` and `Matrix.__abs__()` methods, there is actually no need to work with it explicitly." "Also, let's import the [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module with the `norm()` function into the global scope. As this function is integrated into the `Vector.__abs__()` and `Matrix.__abs__()` methods, there is actually no need to work with it explicitly."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1140,7 +1140,7 @@
"source": [ "source": [
"Many tutorials on the internet begin by importing \"everything\" from a package into the global scope with `from ... import *`.\n", "Many tutorials on the internet begin by importing \"everything\" from a package into the global scope with `from ... import *`.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"That is commonly considered a *bad* practice as it may overwrite already existing variables. However, if the package's [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file defines an `__all__` attribute, a `list` with all the names to be \"exported,\" the **star import** is safe to be used, in particular, in *interactive* sessions like Jupyter notebooks. We emphasize that the star import should *not* be used *within* packages and modules as then it is not directly evident from a name where the corresponding object is defined.\n", "That is commonly considered a *bad* practice as it may overwrite already existing variables. However, if the package's [*\\_\\_init\\_\\_.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/__init__.py) file defines an `__all__` attribute, a `list` with all the names to be \"exported,\" the **star import** is safe to be used, in particular, in *interactive* sessions like Jupyter notebooks. We emphasize that the star import should *not* be used *within* packages and modules as then it is not directly evident from a name where the corresponding object is defined.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"For more best practices regarding importing we refer to, among others, [Google's Python Style Guide](https://google.github.io/styleguide/pyguide.html#22-imports).\n", "For more best practices regarding importing we refer to, among others, [Google's Python Style Guide](https://google.github.io/styleguide/pyguide.html#22-imports).\n",
"\n", "\n",
@ -1238,9 +1238,9 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"The final implementations of the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes are in the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) files: They integrate all of the functionalities introduced in this chapter. In addition, the code is cleaned up and fully documented, including examples of common usages.\n", "The final implementations of the `Vector` and `Matrix` classes are in the [*matrix.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/matrix.py) and [*vector.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/vector.py) files: They integrate all of the functionalities introduced in this chapter. In addition, the code is cleaned up and fully documented, including examples of common usages.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"We strongly suggest the eager student go over the files in the [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/11_classes/sample_package) in detail at some point to understand what well-written and (re-)usable code looks like." "We strongly suggest the eager student go over the files in the [*sample_package* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/11_classes/sample_package) in detail at some point to understand what well-written and (re-)usable code looks like."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -1479,7 +1479,7 @@
} }
}, },
"source": [ "source": [
"Both `Matrix/Vector.storage` and `Matrix/Vector.typing` themselves reference the `DEFAULT_ENTRIES_STORAGE` and `DEFAULT_ENTRY_TYPE` constants in the [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module. This way, we could, for example, change only the constants and thereby also change how the `._entries` are stored internally in both classes. Also, this single **[single source of truth <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_source_of_truth)** ensures that both classes are consistent with each other at all times." "Both `Matrix/Vector.storage` and `Matrix/Vector.typing` themselves reference the `DEFAULT_ENTRIES_STORAGE` and `DEFAULT_ENTRY_TYPE` constants in the [*utils.py* <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/sample_package/utils.py) module. This way, we could, for example, change only the constants and thereby also change how the `._entries` are stored internally in both classes. Also, this single **[single source of truth <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_wiki.png\">](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Single_source_of_truth)** ensures that both classes are consistent with each other at all times."
] ]
}, },
{ {
@ -2238,7 +2238,7 @@
"\n", "\n",
"If we feel like sharing our linear algebra library with the world, we could easily do so on either [GitHub <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com) or [PyPI](https://pypi.org). However, for the domain of linear algebra this would be rather pointless as there is already a widely adopted library with [numpy](https://www.numpy.org/) that not only has a lot more features than ours but also is implemented in C, which makes it a lot faster with big data.\n", "If we feel like sharing our linear algebra library with the world, we could easily do so on either [GitHub <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_gh.png\">](https://github.com) or [PyPI](https://pypi.org). However, for the domain of linear algebra this would be rather pointless as there is already a widely adopted library with [numpy](https://www.numpy.org/) that not only has a lot more features than ours but also is implemented in C, which makes it a lot faster with big data.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Let's model the example in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Vectors-&-Matrices) with both [numpy](https://www.numpy.org/) and our own DSL and compare them." "Let's model the example in the [first part <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb#Example:-Vectors-&-Matrices) with both [numpy](https://www.numpy.org/) and our own DSL and compare them."
] ]
}, },
{ {

2
11_classes/06_review.ipynb
View file

@ -11,7 +11,7 @@
"cell_type": "markdown", "cell_type": "markdown",
"metadata": {}, "metadata": {},
"source": [ "source": [
"The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/02_content.ipynb), [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/03_content.ipynb), and [fourth <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/04_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 11.\n", "The questions below assume that you have read the [first <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb), [second <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/02_content.ipynb), [third <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/03_content.ipynb), and [fourth <img height=\"12\" style=\"display: inline-block\" src=\"../static/link/to_nb.png\">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/04_content.ipynb) part of Chapter 11.\n",
"\n", "\n",
"Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence." "Be concise in your answers! Most questions can be answered in *one* sentence."
] ]

250
CONTENTS.md
View file

@ -24,271 +24,271 @@ It is recommended
If this is not possible, If this is not possible,
the files can be viewed in a web browser the files can be viewed in a web browser
either statically (i.e., read-only) on [nbviewer <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/develop/) either statically (i.e., read-only) on [nbviewer <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/tree/main/)
or interactively (i.e., code can be executed) on [Binder <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab). or interactively (i.e., code can be executed) on [Binder <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab).
- *Chapter 0*: Introduction - *Chapter 0*: Introduction
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/00_content.ipynb)
(Python's History & Background; (Python's History & Background;
Open-source & Communities; Open-source & Communities;
JupyterLab; JupyterLab;
Programming vs. Computer Science; Programming vs. Computer Science;
Learning Tips) Learning Tips)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/01_exercises_markdown.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/01_exercises_markdown.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/01_exercises_markdown.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/00_intro/01_exercises_markdown.ipynb)
(Mastering Markdown) (Mastering Markdown)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/00_intro/02_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/00_intro/02_review.ipynb)
- **Part A: Expressing Logic** - **Part A: Expressing Logic**
- *Chapter 1*: Elements of a Program - *Chapter 1*: Elements of a Program
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/00_content.ipynb)
(A first Example: Averaging Even Numbers; (A first Example: Averaging Even Numbers;
Operators; Operators;
Objects & Data Types; Objects & Data Types;
Errors) Errors)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/01_exercises_print.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/01_exercises_print.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/01_exercises_print.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/01_exercises_print.ipynb)
(Printing Output) (Printing Output)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/02_exercises_for-loops.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/02_exercises_for-loops.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/02_exercises_for-loops.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/02_exercises_for-loops.ipynb)
(Simple `for`-loops) (Simple `for`-loops)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/03_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/03_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/03_content.ipynb)
(Memory in Detail; (Memory in Detail;
Variables & References; Variables & References;
Mutability; Mutability;
Expressions & Statements) Expressions & Statements)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/04_exercises_calculator.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/04_exercises_calculator.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/04_exercises_calculator.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/04_exercises_calculator.ipynb)
(Python as a Calculator) (Python as a Calculator)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/05_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/05_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/06_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/06_review.ipynb)
- [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb) - [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/01_elements/07_resources.ipynb)
- *Chapter 2*: Functions & Modularization - *Chapter 2*: Functions & Modularization
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/00_content.ipynb)
(Built-in Functions & Constructors; (Built-in Functions & Constructors;
Function Definitions; Function Definitions;
Function Calls & Scoping Rules; Function Calls & Scoping Rules;
Positional vs. Keyword Arguments; Positional vs. Keyword Arguments;
Modularization) Modularization)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/01_exercises_sphere-volume.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/01_exercises_sphere-volume.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/01_exercises_sphere-volume.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/01_exercises_sphere-volume.ipynb)
(Volume of a Sphere) (Volume of a Sphere)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/02_functions/02_content.ipynb)
(Standard Library: `math` & `random` Modules; (Standard Library: `math` & `random` Modules;
Third-party Packages: `numpy` Library; Third-party Packages: `numpy` Library;
Writing one's own Modules) Writing one's own Modules)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/03_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/03_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/02_functions/04_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/02_functions/04_review.ipynb)
- *Chapter 3*: Conditionals & Exceptions - *Chapter 3*: Conditionals & Exceptions
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/00_content.ipynb)
(Boolean Expressions; (Boolean Expressions;
Relational Operators; Relational Operators;
Logical Operators; Logical Operators;
`if` statement; `if` statement;
Exception Handling) Exception Handling)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/01_exercises_discounts.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/01_exercises_discounts.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/01_exercises_discounts.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/01_exercises_discounts.ipynb)
(Discounting Customer Orders) (Discounting Customer Orders)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/02_exercises_fizz-buzz.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/02_exercises_fizz-buzz.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/02_exercises_fizz-buzz.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/03_conditionals/02_exercises_fizz-buzz.ipynb)
(Fizz Buzz) (Fizz Buzz)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/03_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/03_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/03_conditionals/04_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/03_conditionals/04_review.ipynb)
- *Chapter 4*: Recursion & Looping - *Chapter 4*: Recursion & Looping
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/00_content.ipynb)
(Recursion; (Recursion;
Examples: Factorial, Euclid's Algorithm, & Fibonacci; Examples: Factorial, Euclid's Algorithm, & Fibonacci;
Duck Typing; Duck Typing;
Type Casting & Checking; Type Casting & Checking;
Input Validation) Input Validation)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/01_exercises_hanoi-towers.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/01_exercises_hanoi-towers.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/01_exercises_hanoi-towers.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/01_exercises_hanoi-towers.ipynb)
(Towers of Hanoi) (Towers of Hanoi)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/02_content.ipynb)
(Looping with `while` & `for`; (Looping with `while` & `for`;
Examples: Collatz Conjecture, Factorial, Euclid's Algorithm, & Fibonacci; Examples: Collatz Conjecture, Factorial, Euclid's Algorithm, & Fibonacci;
Containers vs. Iterables) Containers vs. Iterables)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/03_content.ipynb)
(Customizing Loops with `break` and `continue`; (Customizing Loops with `break` and `continue`;
Indefinite Loops) Indefinite Loops)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/04_exercises_dice.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/04_exercises_dice.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/04_exercises_dice.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/04_iteration/04_exercises_dice.ipynb)
(Throwing Dice) (Throwing Dice)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/05_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/05_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/04_iteration/06_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/04_iteration/06_review.ipynb)
- **Part B: Managing Data and Memory** - **Part B: Managing Data and Memory**
- *Chapter 5*: Numbers & Bits - *Chapter 5*: Numbers & Bits
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/00_content.ipynb)
(`int` Type; (`int` Type;
Binary & Hexadecimal Representations; Binary & Hexadecimal Representations;
Bit Arithmetic; Bit Arithmetic;
Bitwise Operators) Bitwise Operators)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/01_content.ipynb)
(`float` Type; (`float` Type;
Floating-point Standard; Floating-point Standard;
Special Values; Special Values;
Imprecision; Imprecision;
Binary & Hexadecimal Representations) Binary & Hexadecimal Representations)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/02_content.ipynb)
(`complex` Type; (`complex` Type;
Numerical Tower; Numerical Tower;
Duck vs. Goose Typing) Duck vs. Goose Typing)
- [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb) - [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/03_appendix.ipynb)
(`Decimal` Type; (`Decimal` Type;
`Fraction` Type) `Fraction` Type)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/04_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/04_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/05_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/05_review.ipynb)
- [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) - [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/05_numbers/06_resources.ipynb)
- *Chapter 6*: Text & Bytes - *Chapter 6*: Text & Bytes
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/00_content.ipynb)
(`str` Type; (`str` Type;
Reading Files; Reading Files;
Sequences; Sequences;
Indexing & Slicing; Indexing & Slicing;
String Methods & Operations; String Methods & Operations;
String Interpolation) String Interpolation)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/01_exercises_palindromes.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/01_exercises_palindromes.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_exercises_palindromes.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/01_exercises_palindromes.ipynb)
(Detecting Palindromes) (Detecting Palindromes)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/02_content.ipynb)
(Special Characters; (Special Characters;
ASCII & Unicode; ASCII & Unicode;
Multi-line Strings; Multi-line Strings;
`bytes` Type; `bytes` Type;
Character Encodings) Character Encodings)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/03_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/03_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/04_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/04_review.ipynb)
- [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/06_text/05_resources.ipynb) - [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/06_text/05_resources.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/05_resources.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/06_text/05_resources.ipynb)
- *Chapter 7*: Sequential Data - *Chapter 7*: Sequential Data
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/00_content.ipynb)
(Collections vs. Sequences; (Collections vs. Sequences;
ABCs: `Container`, `Iterable`, `Sized`, & `Reversible`) ABCs: `Container`, `Iterable`, `Sized`, & `Reversible`)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/01_content.ipynb)
(`list` Type; (`list` Type;
Indexing & Slicing; Indexing & Slicing;
Shallow vs. Deep Copies; Shallow vs. Deep Copies;
List Methods & Operations) List Methods & Operations)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/02_exercises_lists.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/02_exercises_lists.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/02_exercises_lists.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/02_exercises_lists.ipynb)
(Working with Lists) (Working with Lists)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/03_content.ipynb)
(Modifiers vs. Pure Functions; (Modifiers vs. Pure Functions;
`tuple` Type; `tuple` Type;
Packing & Unpacking; Packing & Unpacking;
`*args` in Function Definitions) `*args` in Function Definitions)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/04_exercises_un-packing.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/04_exercises_un-packing.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/04_exercises_un-packing.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/04_exercises_un-packing.ipynb)
(Packing & Unpacking with Functions) (Packing & Unpacking with Functions)
- [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb) - [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/07_sequences/05_appendix.ipynb)
(`namedtuple` Type) (`namedtuple` Type)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/06_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/06_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/07_sequences/07_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/07_sequences/07_review.ipynb)
- *Chapter 8*: Map, Filter, & Reduce - *Chapter 8*: Map, Filter, & Reduce
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/00_content.ipynb)
(Mapping; (Mapping;
Filtering; Filtering;
Reducing; Reducing;
`lambda` Expression) `lambda` Expression)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/01_content.ipynb)
(`list` Comprehension; (`list` Comprehension;
`generator` Expression; `generator` Expression;
Streams of Data; Streams of Data;
Boolean Reducers) Boolean Reducers)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/02_exercises_outliers.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/02_exercises_outliers.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/02_exercises_outliers.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/02_exercises_outliers.ipynb)
(Removing Outliers in Streaming Data) (Removing Outliers in Streaming Data)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/03_exercises_un-packing.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/03_exercises_un-packing.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/03_exercises_un-packing.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/03_exercises_un-packing.ipynb)
(Packing & Unpacking with Functions, continued) (Packing & Unpacking with Functions, continued)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/08_mfr/04_content.ipynb)
(Iterators vs. Iterables; (Iterators vs. Iterables;
Example: `sorted()` vs. `reversed()`) Example: `sorted()` vs. `reversed()`)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/05_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/05_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/08_mfr/06_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/08_mfr/06_review.ipynb)
- *Chapter 9*: Mappings & Sets - *Chapter 9*: Mappings & Sets
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/00_content.ipynb)
(`dict` Type; (`dict` Type;
Nested Data; Nested Data;
Hash Tables; Hash Tables;
`dict` Methods & Behavior; `dict` Methods & Behavior;
`dict` Comprehension) `dict` Comprehension)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/01_exercises_nested-data.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/01_exercises_nested-data.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/01_exercises_nested-data.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/01_exercises_nested-data.ipynb)
(Working with Nested Data) (Working with Nested Data)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/02_content.ipynb)
(`**kwargs` in Function Definitions; (`**kwargs` in Function Definitions;
Memoization) Memoization)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/03_exercises_fibonacci.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/03_exercises_fibonacci.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/03_exercises_fibonacci.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/03_exercises_fibonacci.ipynb)
(Memoization without Side Effects) (Memoization without Side Effects)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/04_content.ipynb)
(`set` Type; (`set` Type;
`set` Methods & Operations; `set` Methods & Operations;
`set` Comprehension; `set` Comprehension;
`frozenset` Type) `frozenset` Type)
- [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb) - [appendix <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/05_appendix.ipynb)
(`defaultdict` Type; (`defaultdict` Type;
`Counter` Type; `Counter` Type;
`ChainMap` Type) `ChainMap` Type)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/06_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/06_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/07_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/07_review.ipynb)
- [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb) - [further resources <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/09_mappings/08_resources.ipynb)
- *Chapter 10*: Arrays & Dataframes - *Chapter 10*: Arrays & Dataframes
- *Chapter 11*: Classes & Instances - *Chapter 11*: Classes & Instances
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/00_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/00_content.ipynb)
(`class` Statement; (`class` Statement;
Instantiation; Instantiation;
Text Representations; Text Representations;
Instance Methods vs. Class Methods; Instance Methods vs. Class Methods;
Computed Properties) Computed Properties)
- [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/01_exercises_tsp.ipynb) - [exercises <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/01_exercises_tsp.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/01_exercises_tsp.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/01_exercises_tsp.ipynb)
(A Traveling Salesman Problem) (A Traveling Salesman Problem)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/02_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/02_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/02_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/02_content.ipynb)
(Sequence Emulation & Iteration; (Sequence Emulation & Iteration;
Python's Data Model; Python's Data Model;
(Im)mutable Data Types; (Im)mutable Data Types;
Method Chaining; Method Chaining;
Polymorphism) Polymorphism)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/03_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/03_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/03_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/03_content.ipynb)
(Operator Overloading: Arithmetic & Relational Operators; (Operator Overloading: Arithmetic & Relational Operators;
Number Emulation) Number Emulation)
- [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/04_content.ipynb) - [content <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/04_content.ipynb)
[<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/develop?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/04_content.ipynb) [<img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_mb.png">](https://mybinder.org/v2/gh/webartifex/intro-to-python/main?urlpath=lab/tree/11_classes/04_content.ipynb)
(Writing one's own Packages; (Writing one's own Packages;
The final `Vector` & `Matrix` Classes; The final `Vector` & `Matrix` Classes;
Comparison with `numpy`) Comparison with `numpy`)
- [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/05_summary.ipynb) - [summary <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/05_summary.ipynb)
- [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/develop/11_classes/06_review.ipynb) - [review questions <img height="12" style="display: inline-block" src="static/link/to_nb.png">](https://nbviewer.jupyter.org/github/webartifex/intro-to-python/blob/main/11_classes/06_review.ipynb)

2
pyproject.toml
View file

@ -4,7 +4,7 @@ build-backend = "poetry.core.masonry.api"
[tool.poetry] [tool.poetry]
name = "intro-to-python" name = "intro-to-python"
version = "0.1.0.dev0" version = "0.1.0"
package-mode = false package-mode = false
authors = ["Alexander Hess <alexander@webartifex.biz>"] authors = ["Alexander Hess <alexander@webartifex.biz>"]